Grade 10
  1. Matter and its properties  1.1. States of matter  1.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  1.3. Classification of substances (elements, compounds, mixtures)  1.4. Changes in Matter (Physical and Chemical Changes)  1.5. Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions
  2. Atomic Structure  2.1. Historical development of the atomic model  2.2. Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)  2.3. Atomic number, mass number and isotopes  2.4. Electronic Configuration and Energy Levels  2.5. Valency, ion formation and oxidation state
  3. Periodic table  3.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Trends  3.3. Groups and Periods in the Periodic Table  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table  3.5. Metals, non-metals, metalloids and their properties  3.6. Noble gases and their chemical inertness
  4. Chemical bond  4.1. Formation of Chemical Bonds (Octet Rule)  4.2. Ionic Bonding and Properties of Ionic Compounds  4.3. Covalent Bond and Properties of Covalent Compounds  4.4. Metallic bond and its properties  4.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  4.6. Polarity and dipole moment of molecules  4.7. Intermolecular forces
  5. Chemical Reactions and Equations  5.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  5.2. Writing and balancing chemical equations  5.3. Law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions  5.4. Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions  5.5. Catalysts and their role in chemical reactions  5.6. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
  6. Stoichiometry and Chemical Calculations  6.1. Mole concept and Avogadro number  6.2. Molar Mass and Gram-Mole Conversions  6.3. Empirical and molecular formula  6.4. Stoichiometric calculations and chemical yield  6.5. Limiting and Excess Reactants
  7. Acids, Bases and Salts  7.1. Properties and Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)  7.2. pH Scale, pOH, and Indicators  7.3. Neutralization reactions and salt formation  7.4. Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases)  7.5. Common Acids and Bases in Daily Life  7.6. Salts, their solubility and applications
  8. Metals and Nonmetals  8.1. Physical and chemical properties of metals  8.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals  8.3. Reactivity Series of Metals and Displacement Reactions  8.4. Extraction of metals from ores  8.5. Corrosion, its causes and prevention  8.6. Alloys, their composition and uses
  9. Carbon and its compounds  9.1. Allotropes of Carbon  9.2. Hydrocarbons and their classification (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)  9.3. Functional groups in organic compounds  9.4. Nomenclature of organic compounds (IUPAC system)  9.5. Isomerism in organic chemistry (structural and geometrical)  9.6. Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)  9.7. Applications of organic compounds in industry and daily life
  10. Environmental Chemistry  10.1. Air Pollution (Sources, Effects and Control)  10.2. Water Pollution (Causes, Effects and Remedies)  10.3. Greenhouse effect and global warming  10.4. Ozone layer depletion and its effects  10.5. Green Chemistry and Its Applications  10.6. sustainable chemistry practice
  11. Thermochemistry  11.1. Heat and Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions  11.2. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions  11.3. Enthalpy, enthalpy change, and heat of reaction  11.4. Specific heat capacity and calorimetry  11.5. Energy Changes in Combustion Reactions
  12. Electrochemistry  12.1. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes  12.2. Electrolysis and its applications (electroplating, extraction of metals)  12.3. Redox reactions (oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Galvanic cell and electrochemical series  12.5. Corrosion and electrochemical prevention methods
  13. Chemical kinetics and equilibrium  13.1. Rate of chemical reactions and its measurement  13.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (catalyst, temperature, concentration)  13.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions  13.4. Dynamic equilibrium and equilibrium constant  13.5. Le Chatelier's principle and its applications
  14. Gases and Gas Laws  14.1. Properties of gases and kinetic molecular theory  14.2. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relation)  14.3. Charles's Law  14.4. Gay-Lussac's Law  14.5. Combined Gas Law and Ideal Gas Law  14.6. Real Gases vs Ideal Gases
  15. Nuclear Chemistry  15.1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions  15.2. Types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma)  15.3. Half-life and applications of radioactive isotopes  15.4. Nuclear fission and fusion reactions  15.5. Nuclear power generation and its environmental impact

Grade 10 → Carbon and its compounds ↓


Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)


Combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization

Organic reactions involve compounds containing carbon. Understanding these reactions is important in chemistry, as they form the basis of many processes in our daily lives. Here we examine the four major types of organic reactions: combustion, addition, substitution, and polymerization. Each of these plays an important role in both industrial applications and biological systems.

Combustion

Combustion is a type of chemical reaction in which a substance combines with oxygen to produce heat and usually light. This process is essential for providing energy and is commonly seen in the burning of fuels such as wood, coal, and gasoline.

Combustion may be classified into two types:

  • Complete combustion: Occurs when a hydrocarbon reacts with enough oxygen, forming carbon dioxide and water. For example, the combustion of methane is represented as:
    •  CH 4 + 2O 2 → CO 2 + 2H 2 O
  • Incomplete combustion: This occurs when the supply of oxygen is limited, producing carbon monoxide or carbon (soot) along with water. Incomplete combustion of methane can be expressed as:
    •  2CH 4 + 3O 2 → 2CO + 4H 2 O

    In real life, combustion is clearly visible in car engines, heating systems, and even in the metabolic processes of living organisms.

    Oxygen

Addition reaction

Addition reactions are common with unsaturated hydrocarbons such as alkenes and alkynes. These molecules have double or triple bonds, which can open to add new atoms.

The addition reaction can be represented as:

 Unsaturated compound + New Atom(s) → Saturated compound

Consider the reaction of ethane (C 2 H 4 ) with hydrogen (H 2 ) to form ethane (C 2 H 6 ):

 C 2 H 4 + H 2 → C 2 H 6

These reactions are used in many industries, for example, the production of margarine by hydrogenation of vegetable oils.

C 2 H 4 , H2 C 2 H 6

Addition reactions are important in the production of polymers, which we will study in depth in the polymerization section.

Substitution reaction

In substitution reactions, an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group. This type of reaction often occurs in saturated hydrocarbons or aromatic compounds.

The simplest representation of a substitution reaction is as follows:

 RH + X → RX + H

Where R is an alkyl group and X is a substituent.

An everyday example of this is the chlorination of methane:

 CH 4 + Cl 2 → CH 3 Cl + HCl

Substitution reactions are important in organic synthesis, allowing chemists to incorporate different functional groups into organic molecules.

CH 4 , CL 2 CH 3 Cl , HCl

The use of catalysts or light in such reactions can increase the rate of the substitution process.

Polymerization

Polymerization involves the formation of larger molecules called polymers from smaller units called monomers. This process is fundamental in the manufacture of many synthetic materials such as plastics, fibers and rubber.

Polymerization reactions can be classified into addition polymerization and condensation polymerization:

  • Addition polymerization: Monomers add to each other without loss of any molecule. A typical example of this is the polymerization of ethene to form polyethylene:
    •  nC 2 H 4 → [-CH 2 -CH 2 -] n
  • Condensation polymerization: monomers join together with the elimination of small molecules such as water or methanol. An example of this is the formation of nylon from hexamethylenediamine and adipic acid:
    •  nHOOC-(CH 2 ) 4 -COOH + nH 2 N-(CH 2 ) 6 -NH 2 → [-OC-(CH 2 ) 4 -CO-NH-(CH 2 ) 6 -NH-] n + 2nH 2 O

Polymerization supports a wide range of applications, from everyday materials like plastic bags and bottles to advanced biomedical devices.

N C 2 H 4 [-CH 2 -CH 2 -] n polyethylene

With polymerization, the versatility and broadness of the materials that can be synthesized meet a wide variety of needs, from practical uses in construction to complex applications in electronics.

Conclusion

The four types of organic reactions: combustion, addition, substitution, and polymerization, are fundamental to the study and application of chemistry. Each reaction type makes important contributions to both everyday life and industrial processes. Understanding these reactions helps explain how various materials are developed and used in the world around us.


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Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)

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