Grade 10
  1. Matter and its properties  1.1. States of matter  1.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  1.3. Classification of substances (elements, compounds, mixtures)  1.4. Changes in Matter (Physical and Chemical Changes)  1.5. Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions
  2. Atomic Structure  2.1. Historical development of the atomic model  2.2. Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)  2.3. Atomic number, mass number and isotopes  2.4. Electronic Configuration and Energy Levels  2.5. Valency, ion formation and oxidation state
  3. Periodic table  3.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Trends  3.3. Groups and Periods in the Periodic Table  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table  3.5. Metals, non-metals, metalloids and their properties  3.6. Noble gases and their chemical inertness
  4. Chemical bond  4.1. Formation of Chemical Bonds (Octet Rule)  4.2. Ionic Bonding and Properties of Ionic Compounds  4.3. Covalent Bond and Properties of Covalent Compounds  4.4. Metallic bond and its properties  4.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  4.6. Polarity and dipole moment of molecules  4.7. Intermolecular forces
  5. Chemical Reactions and Equations  5.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  5.2. Writing and balancing chemical equations  5.3. Law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions  5.4. Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions  5.5. Catalysts and their role in chemical reactions  5.6. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
  6. Stoichiometry and Chemical Calculations  6.1. Mole concept and Avogadro number  6.2. Molar Mass and Gram-Mole Conversions  6.3. Empirical and molecular formula  6.4. Stoichiometric calculations and chemical yield  6.5. Limiting and Excess Reactants
  7. Acids, Bases and Salts  7.1. Properties and Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)  7.2. pH Scale, pOH, and Indicators  7.3. Neutralization reactions and salt formation  7.4. Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases)  7.5. Common Acids and Bases in Daily Life  7.6. Salts, their solubility and applications
  8. Metals and Nonmetals  8.1. Physical and chemical properties of metals  8.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals  8.3. Reactivity Series of Metals and Displacement Reactions  8.4. Extraction of metals from ores  8.5. Corrosion, its causes and prevention  8.6. Alloys, their composition and uses
  9. Carbon and its compounds  9.1. Allotropes of Carbon  9.2. Hydrocarbons and their classification (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)  9.3. Functional groups in organic compounds  9.4. Nomenclature of organic compounds (IUPAC system)  9.5. Isomerism in organic chemistry (structural and geometrical)  9.6. Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)  9.7. Applications of organic compounds in industry and daily life
  10. Environmental Chemistry  10.1. Air Pollution (Sources, Effects and Control)  10.2. Water Pollution (Causes, Effects and Remedies)  10.3. Greenhouse effect and global warming  10.4. Ozone layer depletion and its effects  10.5. Green Chemistry and Its Applications  10.6. sustainable chemistry practice
  11. Thermochemistry  11.1. Heat and Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions  11.2. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions  11.3. Enthalpy, enthalpy change, and heat of reaction  11.4. Specific heat capacity and calorimetry  11.5. Energy Changes in Combustion Reactions
  12. Electrochemistry  12.1. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes  12.2. Electrolysis and its applications (electroplating, extraction of metals)  12.3. Redox reactions (oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Galvanic cell and electrochemical series  12.5. Corrosion and electrochemical prevention methods
  13. Chemical kinetics and equilibrium  13.1. Rate of chemical reactions and its measurement  13.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (catalyst, temperature, concentration)  13.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions  13.4. Dynamic equilibrium and equilibrium constant  13.5. Le Chatelier's principle and its applications
  14. Gases and Gas Laws  14.1. Properties of gases and kinetic molecular theory  14.2. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relation)  14.3. Charles's Law  14.4. Gay-Lussac's Law  14.5. Combined Gas Law and Ideal Gas Law  14.6. Real Gases vs Ideal Gases
  15. Nuclear Chemistry  15.1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions  15.2. Types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma)  15.3. Half-life and applications of radioactive isotopes  15.4. Nuclear fission and fusion reactions  15.5. Nuclear power generation and its environmental impact

Grade 10 → Metals and Nonmetals ↓


Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals


Nonmetals are one of the major groups of elements that exhibit a range of physical and chemical properties that differ from metals. Nonmetals cover a wide range of elements and can be found in a variety of states at room temperature: gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, liquids such as bromine, and solids such as carbon and sulfur. The diversity among nonmetals is considerable, and they play important roles in natural and man-made processes. Below, we discuss the physical and chemical properties of nonmetals in depth, exploring their unique characteristics with examples and visualizations.

Physical properties of nonmetals

Nonmetals have specific physical properties that distinguish them from metals. Let us examine these properties in detail:

Brittleness

Many non-metals are brittle in their solid state, meaning they break easily when subjected to stress. For example, sulfur is a yellow solid that can easily be broken into powder when beaten with a hammer. In contrast, metals are generally malleable and ductile.

Here is a simplified illustration of the breakage of a brittle nonmetal:

Nonmetals (e.g., sulfur)

Non-shiny (dull)

Unlike metals, non-metals lack a lustrous appearance and are usually dull. This dullness is more pronounced in solid non-metals such as carbon in the form of coal or graphite. The surfaces of these materials do not reflect light like metallic surfaces.

Poor conduction

Nonmetals are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity. This is because they are unable to allow the free movement of electrons. For example, rubber, which is made of non-metallic elements, is widely used as an insulator in electrical applications.

Low density and low melting point

Nonmetals generally have lower densities and melting points than metals. This property is evident in gases such as oxygen and nitrogen, which are essential components of the Earth's atmosphere. However, there are exceptions such as diamond (a form of carbon), which has a very high melting point.

Form and color

Nonmetals show a variety of colors. For example, chlorine is yellow-green, iodine is purple, and sulfur is yellow. The variety in color is attributed to the different molecular structures that nonmetals can form.

Here is a diagram showing the colors of some common nonmetals:

Iodine (purple) Chlorine (green) Sulfur (yellow) Phosphorus (white/red)

Chemical properties of nonmetals

The chemical properties of nonmetals are as diverse as their physical properties. They can participate in a wide range of chemical reactions, often act as oxidizing agents, form covalent bonds, and exist in various allotropes.

High electronegativities

Electronegativity refers to the ability of an atom to attract electrons in a covalent bond toward itself. Nonmetals usually have higher electronegativities than metals, causing them to gain electrons during chemical reactions. Oxygen and fluorine have the highest electronegativities.

Electronegativity of Fluorine ≈ 4.0

Covalent bond

Nonmetals usually form covalent bonds by sharing electrons with other nonmetals. These bonds are clearly visible in molecules such as water (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

The covalent bond in water can be represented as follows:

Hey H H

Formation of acidic oxides

Nonmetals usually react with oxygen to form acidic oxides. These oxides dissolve in water to form acids. For example, sulfur dioxide (SO2) reacts with water to form sulfurous acid:

SO2 + H2O → H2SO3

Miscellaneous oxidation states

Nonmetals often exhibit multiple oxidation states, allowing them to form a wide variety of compounds. For example, nitrogen can exist in different oxidation states, forming compounds such as ammonia (NH3), nitrogen dioxide (NO2), and nitric acid (HNO3).

Tendency to gain electrons

During chemical reactions, nonmetals gain electrons, usually reducing their partners while being oxidized themselves. This property makes nonmetals powerful oxidizing agents.

Allotropes

Many non-metals exhibit allotropy, where they exist in different structural forms. A prime example is carbon, whose allotropes include diamond, graphite, and fullerenes, each of which have distinct properties.

A simplified representation of carbon allotropes can be shown as follows:

Lead Diamond Fullerenes

Conclusion

Nonmetals play important roles in chemistry and our daily lives. Their unique physical and chemical properties enable them to participate in a wide variety of chemical reactions essential to life, industry, and technology. Understanding these properties allows us to effectively use nonmetals in a variety of applications, from building materials to cutting-edge electronics. This comprehensive look at the properties of nonmetals highlights their importance, which is in contrast yet in harmony with the metals in the vast periodic table.


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Physical and chemical properties of metals
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Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals

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