Grade 10
  1. Matter and its properties  1.1. States of matter  1.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  1.3. Classification of substances (elements, compounds, mixtures)  1.4. Changes in Matter (Physical and Chemical Changes)  1.5. Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions
  2. Atomic Structure  2.1. Historical development of the atomic model  2.2. Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)  2.3. Atomic number, mass number and isotopes  2.4. Electronic Configuration and Energy Levels  2.5. Valency, ion formation and oxidation state
  3. Periodic table  3.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Trends  3.3. Groups and Periods in the Periodic Table  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table  3.5. Metals, non-metals, metalloids and their properties  3.6. Noble gases and their chemical inertness
  4. Chemical bond  4.1. Formation of Chemical Bonds (Octet Rule)  4.2. Ionic Bonding and Properties of Ionic Compounds  4.3. Covalent Bond and Properties of Covalent Compounds  4.4. Metallic bond and its properties  4.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  4.6. Polarity and dipole moment of molecules  4.7. Intermolecular forces
  5. Chemical Reactions and Equations  5.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  5.2. Writing and balancing chemical equations  5.3. Law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions  5.4. Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions  5.5. Catalysts and their role in chemical reactions  5.6. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
  6. Stoichiometry and Chemical Calculations  6.1. Mole concept and Avogadro number  6.2. Molar Mass and Gram-Mole Conversions  6.3. Empirical and molecular formula  6.4. Stoichiometric calculations and chemical yield  6.5. Limiting and Excess Reactants
  7. Acids, Bases and Salts  7.1. Properties and Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)  7.2. pH Scale, pOH, and Indicators  7.3. Neutralization reactions and salt formation  7.4. Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases)  7.5. Common Acids and Bases in Daily Life  7.6. Salts, their solubility and applications
  8. Metals and Nonmetals  8.1. Physical and chemical properties of metals  8.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals  8.3. Reactivity Series of Metals and Displacement Reactions  8.4. Extraction of metals from ores  8.5. Corrosion, its causes and prevention  8.6. Alloys, their composition and uses
  9. Carbon and its compounds  9.1. Allotropes of Carbon  9.2. Hydrocarbons and their classification (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)  9.3. Functional groups in organic compounds  9.4. Nomenclature of organic compounds (IUPAC system)  9.5. Isomerism in organic chemistry (structural and geometrical)  9.6. Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)  9.7. Applications of organic compounds in industry and daily life
  10. Environmental Chemistry  10.1. Air Pollution (Sources, Effects and Control)  10.2. Water Pollution (Causes, Effects and Remedies)  10.3. Greenhouse effect and global warming  10.4. Ozone layer depletion and its effects  10.5. Green Chemistry and Its Applications  10.6. sustainable chemistry practice
  11. Thermochemistry  11.1. Heat and Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions  11.2. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions  11.3. Enthalpy, enthalpy change, and heat of reaction  11.4. Specific heat capacity and calorimetry  11.5. Energy Changes in Combustion Reactions
  12. Electrochemistry  12.1. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes  12.2. Electrolysis and its applications (electroplating, extraction of metals)  12.3. Redox reactions (oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Galvanic cell and electrochemical series  12.5. Corrosion and electrochemical prevention methods
  13. Chemical kinetics and equilibrium  13.1. Rate of chemical reactions and its measurement  13.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (catalyst, temperature, concentration)  13.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions  13.4. Dynamic equilibrium and equilibrium constant  13.5. Le Chatelier's principle and its applications
  14. Gases and Gas Laws  14.1. Properties of gases and kinetic molecular theory  14.2. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relation)  14.3. Charles's Law  14.4. Gay-Lussac's Law  14.5. Combined Gas Law and Ideal Gas Law  14.6. Real Gases vs Ideal Gases
  15. Nuclear Chemistry  15.1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions  15.2. Types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma)  15.3. Half-life and applications of radioactive isotopes  15.4. Nuclear fission and fusion reactions  15.5. Nuclear power generation and its environmental impact

Grade 10 → Acids, Bases and Salts ↓


Neutralization reactions and salt formation


In our everyday lives, we often encounter things that are either acidic or alkaline, whether it is the citrus fruits in our breakfast or the household cleaning agents we use. In chemistry, a fascinating aspect of the interaction between acids and bases is the process of neutralization and the formation of salts. This article dives into the world of neutralization reactions and explains how they lead to the formation of salts.

Understanding acids and bases

Before we begin the journey of neutralization reactions, we must first understand what acids and bases are. Acids and bases are two basic categories of chemicals that have different properties.

Acid

Acids are substances that can donate hydrogen ions H + in solution. Common characteristics of acids include sour taste, the ability to turn blue litmus paper red, and the ability to react with bases to form salts. Some common examples of acids are:

  • Hydrochloric acid (HCl): Found in the gastric juices in the stomach.
  • Acetic acid (CH3COOH): The main component of vinegar.
  • Sulfuric acid (H2SO4): Widely used in batteries and industrial processes.

Bases

Bases are substances that can accept hydrogen ions H + or release hydroxide ions OH - in solution. Bases have properties such as bitter taste, slippery feel, ability to turn red litmus paper blue, and ability to neutralize acids. Here are some examples of bases:

  • Sodium hydroxide (NaOH): Used in making soap and drain cleaners.
  • Calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH) 2): Used in plaster and lime water.
  • Ammonia (NH3): Found in cleaning products.

Neutralization reactions

Neutralization is a chemical reaction between an acid and a base, resulting in the formation of water and a salt. During neutralization, the acidity and basicity of the reactants cancel out, forming neutral products.

The general form of the neutralization reaction is:

Acid + Base → Salt + Water

Let us understand this with a simple example:

Example 1: Hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide

When hydrochloric acid (HCl) is neutralized by sodium hydroxide (NaOH), it forms sodium chloride (NaCl), a salt, and water (H 2 O).

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H 2 O

Here, the hydrogen ion (H +) from the acid combines with the hydroxide ion (OH -) from the base to form water. The remaining ions, sodium ions (Na +) and chloride ions (Cl -), combine to form sodium chloride, common table salt.

Salt formation

In chemistry terms, salts are ionic compounds that form from the neutralization reaction of an acid and a base. Salts are composed of positive ions (cations) from the base and negative ions (anions) from the acid.

Example 2: Sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide

Imagine that we react sulfuric acid (H 2 SO 4) with potassium hydroxide (KOH).

H 2 SO 4 + 2 KOH → K 2 SO 4 + 2 H 2 O

In this reaction, potassium sulfate (K 2 SO 4) is formed as the salt while water is formed as the other product. The 2:1 ratio is needed because sulfuric acid can donate two hydrogen ions, which require two hydroxide ions to be completely neutralized.

Visualization of salt formation

To better understand how salts are formed through neutralization reactions, consider the following simple example of the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.

HCl NaOH sodium chloride H2O

Different types of salts

Depending on the acid and base involved, different types of salts can be formed. Here are some notable examples:

Common salt

Normal salts are formed when an acid is completely neutralized by a base. For example:

  • Sodium chloride (NaCl) from hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide.
  • Potassium sulfate (K 2 SO 4 is made from sulfuric acid and potassium hydroxide.

Acidic salts

These salts are formed when only a part of the acidic hydrogen ions are replaced by a metal ion or an ammonium ion. This happens when polyprotic acids react partially. For example:

  • Sodium hydrogen sulfate (NaHSO 4) by partial neutralization of sulfuric acid with sodium hydroxide.

Basic salts

When there is an excess of alkali in a neutralization reaction, alkaline salts are formed, leading to incomplete neutralization. For example:

  • Bismuth subcarbonate (BiO(CO 3)) can be produced from carbonic acid and bismuth hydroxide.

Real-life applications of neutralization and salts

Neutralization reactions and the salts formed by them have many applications in our lives:

  • Antacids: Substances such as magnesium hydroxide that neutralise stomach acid can relieve indigestion.
  • Soil treatment: Neutralizing acidic soil with lime (calcium oxide) helps improve crop yield.
  • Water softening: Adding washing soda (a type of salt) to hard water can soften it by precipitating calcium or magnesium salts.

Examples of neutralization in nature

Neutralization reactions are not just the domain of laboratories and industries; they also play important roles in nature.

Lakes and acid rain

When acid rain falls into lakes, it can drastically change their pH levels, harming aquatic life. Lime, which acts as a base, can neutralize the acidity of the water, helping to restore a suitable environment for organisms.

Biological neutralization

The human body uses neutralization reactions, such as in the stomach, where excess hydrochloric acid is neutralized by the body's natural bicarbonate ions to maintain pH balance.

Conclusion

Neutralization reactions represent a beautiful balance in chemistry where acids and bases combine to form salt and water, eliminating the extreme properties of both. Understanding these reactions helps us understand how so many everyday processes depend on the delicate interplay between acids and bases.


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pH Scale, pOH, and Indicators
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Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases)

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