Grade 10
  1. Matter and its properties  1.1. States of matter  1.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  1.3. Classification of substances (elements, compounds, mixtures)  1.4. Changes in Matter (Physical and Chemical Changes)  1.5. Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions
  2. Atomic Structure  2.1. Historical development of the atomic model  2.2. Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)  2.3. Atomic number, mass number and isotopes  2.4. Electronic Configuration and Energy Levels  2.5. Valency, ion formation and oxidation state
  3. Periodic table  3.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Trends  3.3. Groups and Periods in the Periodic Table  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table  3.5. Metals, non-metals, metalloids and their properties  3.6. Noble gases and their chemical inertness
  4. Chemical bond  4.1. Formation of Chemical Bonds (Octet Rule)  4.2. Ionic Bonding and Properties of Ionic Compounds  4.3. Covalent Bond and Properties of Covalent Compounds  4.4. Metallic bond and its properties  4.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  4.6. Polarity and dipole moment of molecules  4.7. Intermolecular forces
  5. Chemical Reactions and Equations  5.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  5.2. Writing and balancing chemical equations  5.3. Law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions  5.4. Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions  5.5. Catalysts and their role in chemical reactions  5.6. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
  6. Stoichiometry and Chemical Calculations  6.1. Mole concept and Avogadro number  6.2. Molar Mass and Gram-Mole Conversions  6.3. Empirical and molecular formula  6.4. Stoichiometric calculations and chemical yield  6.5. Limiting and Excess Reactants
  7. Acids, Bases and Salts  7.1. Properties and Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)  7.2. pH Scale, pOH, and Indicators  7.3. Neutralization reactions and salt formation  7.4. Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases)  7.5. Common Acids and Bases in Daily Life  7.6. Salts, their solubility and applications
  8. Metals and Nonmetals  8.1. Physical and chemical properties of metals  8.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals  8.3. Reactivity Series of Metals and Displacement Reactions  8.4. Extraction of metals from ores  8.5. Corrosion, its causes and prevention  8.6. Alloys, their composition and uses
  9. Carbon and its compounds  9.1. Allotropes of Carbon  9.2. Hydrocarbons and their classification (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)  9.3. Functional groups in organic compounds  9.4. Nomenclature of organic compounds (IUPAC system)  9.5. Isomerism in organic chemistry (structural and geometrical)  9.6. Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)  9.7. Applications of organic compounds in industry and daily life
  10. Environmental Chemistry  10.1. Air Pollution (Sources, Effects and Control)  10.2. Water Pollution (Causes, Effects and Remedies)  10.3. Greenhouse effect and global warming  10.4. Ozone layer depletion and its effects  10.5. Green Chemistry and Its Applications  10.6. sustainable chemistry practice
  11. Thermochemistry  11.1. Heat and Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions  11.2. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions  11.3. Enthalpy, enthalpy change, and heat of reaction  11.4. Specific heat capacity and calorimetry  11.5. Energy Changes in Combustion Reactions
  12. Electrochemistry  12.1. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes  12.2. Electrolysis and its applications (electroplating, extraction of metals)  12.3. Redox reactions (oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Galvanic cell and electrochemical series  12.5. Corrosion and electrochemical prevention methods
  13. Chemical kinetics and equilibrium  13.1. Rate of chemical reactions and its measurement  13.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (catalyst, temperature, concentration)  13.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions  13.4. Dynamic equilibrium and equilibrium constant  13.5. Le Chatelier's principle and its applications
  14. Gases and Gas Laws  14.1. Properties of gases and kinetic molecular theory  14.2. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relation)  14.3. Charles's Law  14.4. Gay-Lussac's Law  14.5. Combined Gas Law and Ideal Gas Law  14.6. Real Gases vs Ideal Gases
  15. Nuclear Chemistry  15.1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions  15.2. Types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma)  15.3. Half-life and applications of radioactive isotopes  15.4. Nuclear fission and fusion reactions  15.5. Nuclear power generation and its environmental impact

Grade 10 ↓


Acids, Bases and Salts


In the study of chemistry, acids, bases, and salts are essential components that describe many of the chemical reactions and properties of substances that occur in everyday life. Understanding these concepts will help us understand why certain chemicals behave the way they do. This guide will explain these fundamental ideas in a simple way.

What are acids?

Acids are substances that can donate protons (H +) to another substance. They often taste sour and can be corrosive. Common household acids include vinegar (acetic acid) and lemon juice (citric acid).

HCl → H + + Cl -

This reaction shows that hydrochloric acid (HCl) dissociates in water to produce hydrogen ions (H +) and chloride ions (Cl -).

H+ CL-

Figure 1: Dissociation of HCl into H + and Cl−

Examples of acids include:

  • Acetic acid: Found in vinegar, used in cooking and cleaning.
  • Citric acid: Found in citrus fruits like lemons and oranges.
  • Hydrochloric acid: Found in the stomach, helps with digestion.

What are the bases?

Bases are substances that can accept protons (H +) or donate hydroxide ions (OH -). They taste bitter and are slippery to the touch. Common bases used in the household include baking soda and soap, which are known for their cleaning properties.

NaOH → Na + + OH -

This equation shows that sodium hydroxide (NaOH) dissociates in water to form sodium ions (Na +) and hydroxide ions (OH -).

Na+ Oh-

Figure 2: Dissociation of NaOH into Na + and OH –

Common examples of bases include:

  • Sodium Hydroxide: Used in drain cleaners and soaps.
  • Ammonia: Found in many household cleaning agents.
  • Magnesium hydroxide: Known as milk of magnesia, it is used as an antacid.

Understanding pH

The strength of an acid or base is measured on the pH scale, which ranges from 0 to 14. pH 7 is considered neutral, an example of which is pure water. Acids have a pH less than 7 and bases have a pH greater than 7.

0 2 4 6 7 9 11 13 14

Figure 3: pH scale representation

Some examples to illustrate pH value:

  • Lemon juice: pH about 2, which makes it acidic.
  • Pure water: pH 7, neutral.
  • Soap: pH around 9 to 10, which makes it alkaline.

What are salts?

Salts are compounds formed when an acid reacts with a base, containing positive ions (cations) and negative ions (anions). A common example of a salt is table salt (NaCl).

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H 2 O

In this neutralization reaction, hydrochloric acid (HCl) reacts with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to form sodium chloride (NaCl) and water (H 2 O).

H+ CL- Na+ Oh-

Figure 4: Reaction forming NaCl

Fail

Neutralization is a chemical reaction in which acids and bases combine to form water and a salt. This results in a solution that is neither acidic nor alkaline. This is important in a variety of applications, such as treating stomach acidity with antacids.

Example:

Consider the reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide:

HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H 2 O

Here, the acid (HCl) and base (NaOH) neutralize each other, forming neutral salt (NaCl) and water (H 2 O).

Properties and applications of salts

  • Sodium Chloride (NaCl): Used in cooking and food preservation.
  • Calcium carbonate (CaCO 3): Found in chalk, limestone, and used in construction.
  • Sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO 3): Also known as baking soda, it is used in baking and cleaning.

Conjugate acid-base pair

Every acid or base reaction produces a conjugate pair. An acid becomes its conjugate base after donating a proton, while a base becomes its conjugate acid after accepting a proton.

Example:

Consider the response:

NH 3 + H 2 O ↔ NH 4 + + OH -

Here, NH 3 (ammonia) is a base and accepts a proton to become NH 4 + (ammonium), which is its conjugate acid. H 2 O (water) acts as an acid and accepts a proton to become OH - (hydroxide), which is its conjugate base.

Indicator

Indicators are substances used to determine whether a solution is acidic or basic. They change color depending on the pH of the solution.

  • Litmus: Turns red in acid and blue in alkali.
  • Phenolphthalein: Colourless in acid and pink in alkali.
  • Methyl orange: Red in acid and yellow in alkali.

Indicators aid in titrations, where acid-base reactions are used to find the concentration of a solution.

Conclusion

Acids, bases, and salts play important roles in chemistry and our daily lives. Acids donate protons, bases accept them, and salts are the products of their neutralization reactions. Understanding these substances helps us understand many chemical processes and their practical applications.


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Acids, Bases and Salts

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