Grade 10
  1. Matter and its properties  1.1. States of matter  1.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  1.3. Classification of substances (elements, compounds, mixtures)  1.4. Changes in Matter (Physical and Chemical Changes)  1.5. Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions
  2. Atomic Structure  2.1. Historical development of the atomic model  2.2. Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)  2.3. Atomic number, mass number and isotopes  2.4. Electronic Configuration and Energy Levels  2.5. Valency, ion formation and oxidation state
  3. Periodic table  3.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Trends  3.3. Groups and Periods in the Periodic Table  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table  3.5. Metals, non-metals, metalloids and their properties  3.6. Noble gases and their chemical inertness
  4. Chemical bond  4.1. Formation of Chemical Bonds (Octet Rule)  4.2. Ionic Bonding and Properties of Ionic Compounds  4.3. Covalent Bond and Properties of Covalent Compounds  4.4. Metallic bond and its properties  4.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  4.6. Polarity and dipole moment of molecules  4.7. Intermolecular forces
  5. Chemical Reactions and Equations  5.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  5.2. Writing and balancing chemical equations  5.3. Law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions  5.4. Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions  5.5. Catalysts and their role in chemical reactions  5.6. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
  6. Stoichiometry and Chemical Calculations  6.1. Mole concept and Avogadro number  6.2. Molar Mass and Gram-Mole Conversions  6.3. Empirical and molecular formula  6.4. Stoichiometric calculations and chemical yield  6.5. Limiting and Excess Reactants
  7. Acids, Bases and Salts  7.1. Properties and Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)  7.2. pH Scale, pOH, and Indicators  7.3. Neutralization reactions and salt formation  7.4. Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases)  7.5. Common Acids and Bases in Daily Life  7.6. Salts, their solubility and applications
  8. Metals and Nonmetals  8.1. Physical and chemical properties of metals  8.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals  8.3. Reactivity Series of Metals and Displacement Reactions  8.4. Extraction of metals from ores  8.5. Corrosion, its causes and prevention  8.6. Alloys, their composition and uses
  9. Carbon and its compounds  9.1. Allotropes of Carbon  9.2. Hydrocarbons and their classification (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)  9.3. Functional groups in organic compounds  9.4. Nomenclature of organic compounds (IUPAC system)  9.5. Isomerism in organic chemistry (structural and geometrical)  9.6. Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)  9.7. Applications of organic compounds in industry and daily life
  10. Environmental Chemistry  10.1. Air Pollution (Sources, Effects and Control)  10.2. Water Pollution (Causes, Effects and Remedies)  10.3. Greenhouse effect and global warming  10.4. Ozone layer depletion and its effects  10.5. Green Chemistry and Its Applications  10.6. sustainable chemistry practice
  11. Thermochemistry  11.1. Heat and Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions  11.2. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions  11.3. Enthalpy, enthalpy change, and heat of reaction  11.4. Specific heat capacity and calorimetry  11.5. Energy Changes in Combustion Reactions
  12. Electrochemistry  12.1. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes  12.2. Electrolysis and its applications (electroplating, extraction of metals)  12.3. Redox reactions (oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Galvanic cell and electrochemical series  12.5. Corrosion and electrochemical prevention methods
  13. Chemical kinetics and equilibrium  13.1. Rate of chemical reactions and its measurement  13.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (catalyst, temperature, concentration)  13.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions  13.4. Dynamic equilibrium and equilibrium constant  13.5. Le Chatelier's principle and its applications
  14. Gases and Gas Laws  14.1. Properties of gases and kinetic molecular theory  14.2. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relation)  14.3. Charles's Law  14.4. Gay-Lussac's Law  14.5. Combined Gas Law and Ideal Gas Law  14.6. Real Gases vs Ideal Gases
  15. Nuclear Chemistry  15.1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions  15.2. Types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma)  15.3. Half-life and applications of radioactive isotopes  15.4. Nuclear fission and fusion reactions  15.5. Nuclear power generation and its environmental impact

Grade 10 → Atomic Structure ↓


Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)


In Class 10 Chemistry, the study of atomic structure is fundamental. At the center of this study are subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These three types of particles make up atoms, which in turn form all the elements in the periodic table. Understanding these particles and their interactions is essential to understand more complex chemical concepts.

Atom

An atom is the smallest unit of matter that retains all the chemical properties of an element. An atom consists of a central nucleus surrounded by one or more electrons. Let's take a closer look at each of these components.

Atom
,
+-- Nucleus
,
| +-- proton (+ charge)
| +-- neutron (0 charge)
,
+-- electron (- charge)

Center

The nucleus is the dense center of the atom. It consists of protons and neutrons, collectively called nucleons.

Proton

Protons are subatomic particles with a positive electrical charge. The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the atomic number and determines which element the atom belongs to. For example, an atom with one proton is hydrogen, while an atom with six protons is carbon. This is represented in chemical symbols as the atomic number (Z).

element symbol | Atomic Number (Z)
,
Hydrogen | H | 1
Carbon |C|6

Protons are relatively heavy compared to electrons. They contribute significantly to the atomic mass of an atom. For example, the mass of a proton is about 1.6726 x 10^-27 kg.

Neutron

Neutrons are neutral particles, with no charge. However, they are important because they contribute to the mass of the atom and can affect its stability. By adding neutrons, you can change the isotope of an element. Isotopes are versions of an element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

The sum of the protons and neutrons of an atom gives the mass number (A).

Mass number (A) = Number of protons (Z) + Number of neutrons (N)

For example, carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon where:

  • Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.
  • Carbon-14 has 6 protons and 8 neutrons.

Electrons

Electrons are negatively charged subatomic particles that orbit the nucleus of an atom. Despite having very little mass (about 9.109 x 10^-31 kg), electrons are essential in determining how an atom interacts and bonds with other atoms.

Electrons occupy different energy levels or electron shells around the nucleus. Electron arrangement is important in determining the chemical properties of an element. As you move across the periodic table, each element adds one more electron and one more proton than the element before it. These electron shells are arranged as follows:

Electron shell | maximum number of electrons
, ,
     1 | 2
     2 | 8
     3 | 18
Nucleus

The figure shows a simplified atomic structure, with the nucleus at the centre and electrons revolving around it in orbits.

Interaction between proton, neutron and electron

The arrangement and interactions of protons, neutrons, and electrons determine the stability and reactivity of the atom.

Nuclear forces

Within the nucleus, the protons and neutrons are held together by the strong nuclear force, one of the four fundamental forces of nature. This force overcomes the electrostatic repulsion between the positively charged protons.

Electrostatic force

The electrostatic force outside the nucleus plays an important role. It is the attraction between negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons that keeps the electrons in orbit around the nucleus. The balance between these forces determines the size and shape of an atom.

Balance and stability

Atoms tend to tend toward lower energy states, which are more stable. The stability of an atom is affected by its electron configuration, particularly the filling of electron shells. Fully or partially filling a shell can make an atom highly reactive or stable.

Conclusion

In conclusion, understanding subatomic particles such as protons, neutrons, and electrons provides insight into the world of chemistry and the structure of matter. Each of these particles plays a vital role in the identity, behavior, and interaction of atoms, shaping everything from the simplest elements to the most complex chemical compounds.


Grade 10 → 2.2


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Historical development of the atomic model
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Atomic number, mass number and isotopes

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Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)

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