Grade 10
  1. Matter and its properties  1.1. States of matter  1.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  1.3. Classification of substances (elements, compounds, mixtures)  1.4. Changes in Matter (Physical and Chemical Changes)  1.5. Law of conservation of mass and law of definite proportions
  2. Atomic Structure  2.1. Historical development of the atomic model  2.2. Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, electrons)  2.3. Atomic number, mass number and isotopes  2.4. Electronic Configuration and Energy Levels  2.5. Valency, ion formation and oxidation state
  3. Periodic table  3.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Trends  3.3. Groups and Periods in the Periodic Table  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table  3.5. Metals, non-metals, metalloids and their properties  3.6. Noble gases and their chemical inertness
  4. Chemical bond  4.1. Formation of Chemical Bonds (Octet Rule)  4.2. Ionic Bonding and Properties of Ionic Compounds  4.3. Covalent Bond and Properties of Covalent Compounds  4.4. Metallic bond and its properties  4.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  4.6. Polarity and dipole moment of molecules  4.7. Intermolecular forces
  5. Chemical Reactions and Equations  5.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  5.2. Writing and balancing chemical equations  5.3. Law of conservation of mass in chemical reactions  5.4. Factors Affecting Chemical Reactions  5.5. Catalysts and their role in chemical reactions  5.6. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
  6. Stoichiometry and Chemical Calculations  6.1. Mole concept and Avogadro number  6.2. Molar Mass and Gram-Mole Conversions  6.3. Empirical and molecular formula  6.4. Stoichiometric calculations and chemical yield  6.5. Limiting and Excess Reactants
  7. Acids, Bases and Salts  7.1. Properties and Definitions of Acids and Bases (Arrhenius, Bronsted-Lowry, Lewis)  7.2. pH Scale, pOH, and Indicators  7.3. Neutralization reactions and salt formation  7.4. Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases)  7.5. Common Acids and Bases in Daily Life  7.6. Salts, their solubility and applications
  8. Metals and Nonmetals  8.1. Physical and chemical properties of metals  8.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Non-Metals  8.3. Reactivity Series of Metals and Displacement Reactions  8.4. Extraction of metals from ores  8.5. Corrosion, its causes and prevention  8.6. Alloys, their composition and uses
  9. Carbon and its compounds  9.1. Allotropes of Carbon  9.2. Hydrocarbons and their classification (alkanes, alkenes, alkynes)  9.3. Functional groups in organic compounds  9.4. Nomenclature of organic compounds (IUPAC system)  9.5. Isomerism in organic chemistry (structural and geometrical)  9.6. Important organic reactions (combustion, addition, substitution, polymerization)  9.7. Applications of organic compounds in industry and daily life
  10. Environmental Chemistry  10.1. Air Pollution (Sources, Effects and Control)  10.2. Water Pollution (Causes, Effects and Remedies)  10.3. Greenhouse effect and global warming  10.4. Ozone layer depletion and its effects  10.5. Green Chemistry and Its Applications  10.6. sustainable chemistry practice
  11. Thermochemistry  11.1. Heat and Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions  11.2. Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions  11.3. Enthalpy, enthalpy change, and heat of reaction  11.4. Specific heat capacity and calorimetry  11.5. Energy Changes in Combustion Reactions
  12. Electrochemistry  12.1. Electrolytes and non-electrolytes  12.2. Electrolysis and its applications (electroplating, extraction of metals)  12.3. Redox reactions (oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Galvanic cell and electrochemical series  12.5. Corrosion and electrochemical prevention methods
  13. Chemical kinetics and equilibrium  13.1. Rate of chemical reactions and its measurement  13.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (catalyst, temperature, concentration)  13.3. Reversible and irreversible reactions  13.4. Dynamic equilibrium and equilibrium constant  13.5. Le Chatelier's principle and its applications
  14. Gases and Gas Laws  14.1. Properties of gases and kinetic molecular theory  14.2. Boyle's Law (Pressure-Volume Relation)  14.3. Charles's Law  14.4. Gay-Lussac's Law  14.5. Combined Gas Law and Ideal Gas Law  14.6. Real Gases vs Ideal Gases
  15. Nuclear Chemistry  15.1. Introduction to Radioactivity and Nuclear Reactions  15.2. Types of radioactive decay (alpha, beta, gamma)  15.3. Half-life and applications of radioactive isotopes  15.4. Nuclear fission and fusion reactions  15.5. Nuclear power generation and its environmental impact

Grade 10 ↓


Carbon and its compounds


Carbon is a very important element in chemistry because it forms a very large number of compounds. In fact, it forms more compounds than any other element. This is because carbon has a unique ability to form strong covalent bonds with many other elements, especially hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other carbon atoms.

Elemental carbon

Carbon is a non-metallic element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass. Carbon atoms have six protons in their nucleus and usually six neutrons. They have four electrons in their outer shell, which makes carbon very versatile in forming bonds with other atoms.

Properties of carbon

  • Carbon is known for its ability to form stable bonds with other elements.
  • It can form multiple bonds (single, double, and triple bonds).
  • Carbon compounds can exist in various forms, such as chains, rings, and other complex structures.

Carbon structures

Allotropes of carbon

Carbon exists in several different forms, and these are known as allotropes. The most common allotropes of carbon are:

  • Diamond: Each carbon atom is bonded to four other carbon atoms in a three-dimensional lattice structure. This strong bond makes diamond extremely hard.
  • Graphite: The carbon atoms in graphite are bonded in layers with a hexagonal arrangement. These layers slide over each other, making graphite slippery and a good lubricant.
  • Fullerenes: These are molecules composed entirely of carbon that take the form of hollow spheres, ellipsoids, or tubes. A common example is the buckyball.
Diamond Lead

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are compounds composed entirely of hydrogen and carbon atoms. They can be classified into different types depending on the type of bond between the carbon atoms:

Types of hydrocarbons

  • Alkanes: Hydrocarbons with only single bonds between carbon atoms. They have the general formula C n H 2n+2. Examples include methane (CH 4) and ethane (C 2 H 6).
  • Alkenes: Hydrocarbons with at least one double bond. They have the general formula C n H 2n. Examples include ethene (C 2 H 4) and propane (C 3 H 6).
  • Alkynes: Hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond. These have the general formula C n H 2n-2. Examples include ethene (C 2 H 2), commonly known as acetylene.

Structural representation of hydrocarbons

A simple illustration of methane and ethene is as follows:

H C C H Methane (CH4)

Let's look at a more complex carbon compound:

Functional group

Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that have their own unique properties, whether or not other atoms are present in the molecule. They determine the characteristics and chemical reactivity of molecules. Some common functional groups are:

  • Alcohol: Contains hydroxyl group (-OH). Example: Ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH).
  • Carboxylic acid: Contains carboxyl group (-COOH). Example: Acetic acid (CH 3 COOH).
  • Aldehyde: It contains formyl group (-CHO). Example: Formaldehyde (CH 2 O).
  • Ketone: Contains a carbonyl group (>C=O) within the carbon chain. Example: Acetone (CH 3 (CO)CH 3).
  • Amine: It contains amino group (-NH2). Example: Methylamine (CH 3 NH 2).

These functional groups alter the properties of hydrocarbons in numerous ways, affecting solubility, acidity, basicity, and reactivity.

Organic compounds

Organic chemistry is the branch of chemistry that deals with carbon compounds. The study of organic compounds involves a variety of molecules, including hydrocarbons and more complex molecules containing other elements.

Examples of organic compounds

1. Methane (CH4): The simplest hydrocarbon with one carbon atom bonded to four hydrogen atoms.

2. Ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH): A type of alcohol used in beverages, fuel, and many other industries.

3. Glucose (C 6 H 12 O 6): A simple sugar used as an energy source in living organisms.

4. Acetic Acid (CH3COOH): Known as vinegar, widely used in food preservation and flavoring.

Isomerism

Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. They can be classified into two main types:

  • Structural isomers: Compounds whose atoms have different valencies. Example: butane and isobutane.
  • Stereoisomers: Compounds with the same valency but different spatial arrangement. This includes enantiomers and diastereomers. Example: Glucose and galactose.

Example of isomers: butane and isobutane

Butane (C4H10) Isobutane ( C4H10)
       haha
        ,
         C - C - C - CC
        ,
      HHHC - H
        hh  /
                                                      H

As seen in the examples above, isomerism allows for different compounds with the same number of atoms but different properties.

Carbon cycle

The carbon cycle is a natural process in which carbon atoms are recycled over and over again. This cycle is vital to life on Earth because it involves the movement of carbon through the atmosphere, living organisms, the oceans, and the Earth's crust.

Main steps of the carbon cycle

  • Photosynthesis: Plants absorb carbon dioxide (CO 2) from the atmosphere and convert it into glucose using sunlight.
  • Respiration: Living organisms release carbon dioxide back into the atmosphere as a by-product when breaking down glucose for energy.
  • Decomposition: When organisms die, decomposers break them down, releasing carbon back into the atmosphere or soil.
  • Combustion: Burning fossil fuels or wood releases stored carbon as carbon dioxide.
  • Absorption by the ocean: The oceans absorb carbon dioxide, which can be used by marine organisms or stored as sediment.

The carbon cycle ensures the constant availability of carbon in various forms essential for life on Earth.

Environmental importance of carbon compounds

Carbon compounds are not only important for the molecular structure of living beings, but also play an important role in environmental processes:

  • Greenhouse gases: Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas that contributes to the greenhouse effect and global climate change.
  • Fossil fuels: These are carbon-rich energy sources, such as coal, oil, and natural gas, that are vital to industrial society.
  • Carbon sequestration: This involves capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide to reduce the effects of climate change.

Understanding carbon and its compounds is essential to make informed decisions about environmental policies and sustainable living.


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Carbon and its compounds

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