PHD
  1. Inorganic chemistry  1.1. Coordination chemistry  1.1.1. Ligand field theory  1.1.2. Crystal field theory  1.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory for Coordination Compounds  1.1.4. Stability of Coordination Compounds  1.1.5. Electronic spectra of coordination compounds  1.1.6. Isomerism in Coordination Compounds  1.1.7. Kinetics and mechanism of coordination reactions  1.2. Organometallic Chemistry  1.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  1.2.2. Metal alkyl and aryl  1.2.3. Fischer and Schrock carbonaceans  1.2.4. Oxidative Addition and Reductive Elimination  1.2.5. Metal Hydrides  1.2.6. Catalysis by organometallic compounds  1.2.7. Metallocenes and Sandwich Complexes  1.2.8. CH activation  1.3. Solid state chemistry  1.3.1. Crystal structures and lattices  1.3.2. Band theory and electrical properties  1.3.3. Defects in the crystal  1.3.4. Synthesis of solid state materials  1.3.5. Magnetic and optical properties of solids  1.3.6. Superconductivity  1.3.7. Solid state ionics  1.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  1.4.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  1.4.2. Metal ion transport and storage  1.4.3. The role of metals in medicine  1.4.4. Bioinspired catalysis  1.4.5. Metal–DNA interactions  1.4.6. Metal Complexes in Medical Science  1.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.1. Electronic configuration and oxidation states in lanthanides and actinides  1.5.2. Spectral and Magnetic Properties in Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.3. Separation and Extraction of Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.4. Coordination chemistry of f-block elements  1.6. Main Group Chemistry  1.6.1. Chemistry of boron compounds  1.6.2. Chemistry of Silicon and Germanium Compounds  1.6.3. Chemistry of Phosphorus and Sulfur Compounds  1.6.4. Organosilicon chemistry  1.6.5. Noble Gas Chemistry
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition and substitution reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.1.7. Photochemical reactions  2.2. Stereoscopic  2.2.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.2.2. Structural analysis  2.2.3. Stereoelectronic effects  2.2.4. Asymmetric synthesis  2.2.5. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.3. Organometallic Chemistry in Organic Synthesis  2.3.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.3.2. Transition metal catalyzed coupling reactions  2.3.3. Palladium-catalyzed reactions  2.3.4. Olefin Metathesis  2.3.5. Gold and silver catalysis  2.4. Natural products chemistry  2.4.1. Alkaloids and terpenoids  2.4.2. Steroids and Flavonoids  2.4.3. Total synthesis of natural products  2.4.4. Biosynthesis of natural products  2.5. Supramolecular Chemistry  2.5.1. Host-Guest Chemistry  2.5.2. Self-assembly and molecular recognition  2.5.3. Supramolecular Catalysis  2.5.4. Molecular Machines
  3. Physical Chemistry  3.1. Thermodynamics  3.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  3.1.2. Chemical Potential and Equilibrium  3.1.3. Statistical thermodynamics  3.1.4. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics  3.2. Quantum Chemistry  3.2.1. Schrödinger equation and its applications  3.2.2. Molecular orbital theory  3.2.3. Density functional theory  3.2.4. Post-Hartree–Fock methods  3.3. Chemical kinetics  3.3.1. Reaction rate theory  3.3.2. Mechanism and rate laws  3.3.3. Catalysis and enzyme kinetics  3.3.4. Reaction dynamics  3.4. Spectroscopy and molecular structure  3.4.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  3.4.2. UV-visible spectroscopy  3.4.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy  3.4.4. Mass Spectrometry  3.4.5. Raman Spectroscopy  3.5. Surface and Colloid Chemistry  3.5.1. Absorption and Catalysis  3.5.2. Surfactants and micelles  3.5.3. Colloidal Stability  3.5.4. Nanomaterials and Interfaces
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.1.4. Ion Chromatography  4.2. Electroanalytical techniques  4.2.1. Voltammetry and Polarography  4.2.2. Conductometry and potentiometry  4.2.3. Colometry  4.3. Spectroscopic Methods  4.3.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.3.2. Fluorescence Spectroscopy  4.3.3. X-ray diffraction  4.3.4. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  4.4. Chemometrics  4.4.1. Data processing and statistical methods  4.4.2. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.4.3. Machine Learning in Analytical Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.2. Quantum chemistry methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.4. Machine Learning in Chemistry  5.5. Ab initio molecular dynamics
  6. Biophysics and Medicinal Chemistry  6.1. Drug discovery and design  6.2. Enzyme kinetics and inhibition  6.3. Chemical biology approach  6.4. Protein-ligand interactions  6.5. Bioorthogonal chemistry
  7. Materials chemistry  7.1. Polymer chemistry  7.1.1. Polymerization mechanism  7.1.2. Functional Polymers  7.1.3. Biodegradable Polymer  7.1.4. Conducting and semiconducting polymers  7.2. Nano Chemistry  7.2.1. Nanoparticles and nanostructures  7.2.2. Carbon-based nanomaterials  7.2.3. Quantum dots  7.3. Energy and Environmental Chemistry  7.3.1. Battery and Fuel Cell Chemistry  7.3.2. Green chemistry and sustainable materials  7.3.3. Photocatalysis

PHD → Inorganic chemistry ↓


Bio-inorganic chemistry


Bioinorganic chemistry is an interdisciplinary field that investigates the role of metals and nonmetals in biological systems. It blends biochemistry and inorganic chemistry, focusing on how metal ions are transported and used within cells and organisms. It is an essential field because metals perform many biological functions that are vital to the survival of living organisms.

Historical background

Bioinorganic chemistry began to gain recognition in the mid-20th century, although the importance of metals in living systems had been established much earlier. Several discoveries, such as the identification of iron in hemoglobin, drew attention to the important role of metals in various physiological processes. The realization that other metals, such as zinc and copper, also play similar roles helped set the stage for the formal establishment of this discipline.

The role of metals in biological systems

Metals can perform many functions in biological systems, including structural, catalytic, and regulatory roles. Here's a closer look at some of these functions:

  • Structural role: Metals can provide structural integrity to proteins and enzymes. For example, zinc fingers are small protein structural motifs stabilized by zinc ions that help bind DNA.
  • Catalytic role: Many enzymes, known as metalloenzymes, require metal ions as cofactors. For example, the enzyme carbonic anhydrase, which regulates pH and fluid balance, has a zinc ion in its active site.
  • Regulatory role: Metal ions can act as catalysts or as secondary messengers in signal transduction pathways. For example, calcium ions play an important role in muscle contraction and nerve impulse transmission.

Common metals and their biological functions

The periodic table contains many metals, but only a subgroup is commonly found in biological systems. Here is an overview of some important bioelements:

  • Iron (Fe): The iron in hemoglobin and myoglobin is important for the transport and storage of oxygen.
  • Zinc (Zn): Participates in enzyme function, protein folding, and gene expression.
  • Copper (Cu): Involved in electron transfer in enzymes such as cytochrome c oxidase, which plays a role in cellular respiration.
  • Magnesium (Mg): Acts as a cofactor in a variety of enzymatic reactions, especially those involving the transfer of phosphate.

Examples of metalloenzymes

Metalloenzymes are enzymes that bind metal ions, which play a key role in the enzyme's catalytic functions. Some well-known examples include:

  • Superoxide dismutase: This enzyme protects cells by converting harmful superoxide radicals into oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Depending on the type of superoxide dismutase, it contains copper/zinc, manganese, or iron.
  • Cytochrome c oxidase: It is a key participant in the electron transport chain. This complex contains several metal ions, including copper and iron.
  • Carboxypeptidase: A protease enzyme that is essential for protein hydrolysis; it contains a zinc ion that is critical for its function.

Mechanism of metal ion action

Inorganic ions can affect the activity of enzymes by various mechanisms:

  • They can stabilize the negative charges of transition states, thereby lowering the energy required for reactions to occur.
  • They can act as electron sinks (or acceptors) that facilitate oxidation-reduction reactions.
  • They can coordinate with substrate molecules and bring them closer for a chemical reaction to take place.

Transport and storage of metal ions

Cells need to efficiently control the concentrations of metal ions. This balance is achieved through dedicated transport and storage systems, including:

  • Transport proteins: These proteins mediate the movement of metal ions across cell membranes. An example of this is transferrin in blood plasma, which binds and transports iron.
  • Storage proteins: Ferritin is a prime example, which stores iron and releases it in a controlled manner to prevent the toxic effects of free iron.

Research in bio-inorganic chemistry

Research in this field can span a range of topics, such as elucidating the mechanisms of metalloenzymes, discovering new metal-based drugs, and developing bio-inspired catalysts. These investigations provide insights that can lead to innovations in medicine, agriculture, and environmental science.

Applications of bio-inorganic chemistry

Bioinorganic chemistry has many practical applications, including:

  • Medicine: Designing metal-based drugs, such as platinum-containing drugs used in chemotherapy.
  • Agriculture: Understanding the role of metals in plant nutrition can help develop better fertilizers and plant genetic variants adapted to different environments.
  • Biotechnology: Creating bioinspired materials and catalysts by understanding how proteins effectively handle metals.

Illustrating the concepts of bio-inorganic chemistry

        
            
            Fe 2+
            
            
            O2

Challenges and future directions

Although bioinorganic chemistry has made significant progress, challenges still remain. One such challenge is understanding the precise mechanisms of metal traffic within cells, including how cells discriminate between different metals according to their needs.

The field of bioinorganic chemistry will continue to grow as new analytical techniques enable in-depth investigation of the metal-binding sites of proteins and the precise control of organisms over metal homeostasis. Future directions may include the development of more sophisticated metal-based drugs, advanced diagnostic tools, and novel materials based on biological processes.


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Bio-inorganic chemistry

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