PHD
  1. Inorganic chemistry  1.1. Coordination chemistry  1.1.1. Ligand field theory  1.1.2. Crystal field theory  1.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory for Coordination Compounds  1.1.4. Stability of Coordination Compounds  1.1.5. Electronic spectra of coordination compounds  1.1.6. Isomerism in Coordination Compounds  1.1.7. Kinetics and mechanism of coordination reactions  1.2. Organometallic Chemistry  1.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  1.2.2. Metal alkyl and aryl  1.2.3. Fischer and Schrock carbonaceans  1.2.4. Oxidative Addition and Reductive Elimination  1.2.5. Metal Hydrides  1.2.6. Catalysis by organometallic compounds  1.2.7. Metallocenes and Sandwich Complexes  1.2.8. CH activation  1.3. Solid state chemistry  1.3.1. Crystal structures and lattices  1.3.2. Band theory and electrical properties  1.3.3. Defects in the crystal  1.3.4. Synthesis of solid state materials  1.3.5. Magnetic and optical properties of solids  1.3.6. Superconductivity  1.3.7. Solid state ionics  1.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  1.4.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  1.4.2. Metal ion transport and storage  1.4.3. The role of metals in medicine  1.4.4. Bioinspired catalysis  1.4.5. Metal–DNA interactions  1.4.6. Metal Complexes in Medical Science  1.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.1. Electronic configuration and oxidation states in lanthanides and actinides  1.5.2. Spectral and Magnetic Properties in Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.3. Separation and Extraction of Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.4. Coordination chemistry of f-block elements  1.6. Main Group Chemistry  1.6.1. Chemistry of boron compounds  1.6.2. Chemistry of Silicon and Germanium Compounds  1.6.3. Chemistry of Phosphorus and Sulfur Compounds  1.6.4. Organosilicon chemistry  1.6.5. Noble Gas Chemistry
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition and substitution reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.1.7. Photochemical reactions  2.2. Stereoscopic  2.2.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.2.2. Structural analysis  2.2.3. Stereoelectronic effects  2.2.4. Asymmetric synthesis  2.2.5. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.3. Organometallic Chemistry in Organic Synthesis  2.3.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.3.2. Transition metal catalyzed coupling reactions  2.3.3. Palladium-catalyzed reactions  2.3.4. Olefin Metathesis  2.3.5. Gold and silver catalysis  2.4. Natural products chemistry  2.4.1. Alkaloids and terpenoids  2.4.2. Steroids and Flavonoids  2.4.3. Total synthesis of natural products  2.4.4. Biosynthesis of natural products  2.5. Supramolecular Chemistry  2.5.1. Host-Guest Chemistry  2.5.2. Self-assembly and molecular recognition  2.5.3. Supramolecular Catalysis  2.5.4. Molecular Machines
  3. Physical Chemistry  3.1. Thermodynamics  3.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  3.1.2. Chemical Potential and Equilibrium  3.1.3. Statistical thermodynamics  3.1.4. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics  3.2. Quantum Chemistry  3.2.1. Schrödinger equation and its applications  3.2.2. Molecular orbital theory  3.2.3. Density functional theory  3.2.4. Post-Hartree–Fock methods  3.3. Chemical kinetics  3.3.1. Reaction rate theory  3.3.2. Mechanism and rate laws  3.3.3. Catalysis and enzyme kinetics  3.3.4. Reaction dynamics  3.4. Spectroscopy and molecular structure  3.4.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  3.4.2. UV-visible spectroscopy  3.4.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy  3.4.4. Mass Spectrometry  3.4.5. Raman Spectroscopy  3.5. Surface and Colloid Chemistry  3.5.1. Absorption and Catalysis  3.5.2. Surfactants and micelles  3.5.3. Colloidal Stability  3.5.4. Nanomaterials and Interfaces
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.1.4. Ion Chromatography  4.2. Electroanalytical techniques  4.2.1. Voltammetry and Polarography  4.2.2. Conductometry and potentiometry  4.2.3. Colometry  4.3. Spectroscopic Methods  4.3.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.3.2. Fluorescence Spectroscopy  4.3.3. X-ray diffraction  4.3.4. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  4.4. Chemometrics  4.4.1. Data processing and statistical methods  4.4.2. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.4.3. Machine Learning in Analytical Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.2. Quantum chemistry methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.4. Machine Learning in Chemistry  5.5. Ab initio molecular dynamics
  6. Biophysics and Medicinal Chemistry  6.1. Drug discovery and design  6.2. Enzyme kinetics and inhibition  6.3. Chemical biology approach  6.4. Protein-ligand interactions  6.5. Bioorthogonal chemistry
  7. Materials chemistry  7.1. Polymer chemistry  7.1.1. Polymerization mechanism  7.1.2. Functional Polymers  7.1.3. Biodegradable Polymer  7.1.4. Conducting and semiconducting polymers  7.2. Nano Chemistry  7.2.1. Nanoparticles and nanostructures  7.2.2. Carbon-based nanomaterials  7.2.3. Quantum dots  7.3. Energy and Environmental Chemistry  7.3.1. Battery and Fuel Cell Chemistry  7.3.2. Green chemistry and sustainable materials  7.3.3. Photocatalysis

PHD ↓


Organic chemistry


Organic chemistry is a subdiscipline of chemistry that deals with the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and preparation of compounds containing carbon atoms. Although a diverse array of molecules can be considered organic, the defining commonality is the presence of carbon. Given that carbon is tetravalent, it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms, typically hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and other carbon atoms, leading to an array of structurally diverse compounds.

Characteristics of organic compounds

The uniqueness of organic compounds arises from the unusual ability of carbon atoms to bond with one another to form long chains and rings. Carbon's versatility allows for a variety of molecular structures, resulting in many unique properties of organic compounds:

  • Structural diversity: The number of compounds that can be classified as organic is much greater than those that can be classified as inorganic. This is due to the ability of carbon atoms to form stable bonds with other carbon atoms.
  • Isomerism: Organic compounds exhibit the phenomenon of isomerism, where compounds with the same molecular formula have different structural arrangements. This structural diversity gives rise to different physical and chemical properties.
  • Reactivity: Organic compounds participate in a wide range of chemical reactions, and their reactivity can be changed by the functional groups incorporated into the carbon framework.

Types of organic reactions

Organic reactions can be broadly classified into several types depending on the mechanism involved:

  1. Substitution reactions: In these reactions, an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. A typical example of this is the halogenation of alkenes:
    CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl
  2. Addition reactions: These reactions involve the addition of atoms or groups to a double or triple bond. An example of this is the addition of hydrogen to an alkene:
    C₂H₄ + H₂ → C₂H₆
  3. Elimination reactions: In elimination reactions, elements are removed from the compound to form a double or triple bond. For example, dehydration of ethanol to ethene:
    C₂H₅OH → C₂H₄ + H₂O
  4. Rearrangement reactions: These involve the reorganization of the molecular structure without adding or removing atoms. For example, the conversion of an alcohol to an aldehyde or ketone:
    CH₃CH(OH)CH₃ → CH₃COCH₃

Functional groups and their importance

Organic chemistry has a unique feature regarding functional groups, which are specific groups of atoms within molecules that determine the characteristic reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will behave predictably in many different molecules. Some common functional groups include:

  • Hydroxyl group (–OH): Found in alcohols, for example, ethanol (C₂H₅OH).
  • Carboxyl group (–COOH): Found in carboxylic acids, for example, acetic acid (CH₃COOH).
  • Amino group (–NH₂): Found in amines and amino acids, for example, glycine (NH₂CH₂COOH).
  • Carbonyl group (C=O): Found in ketones and aldehydes, for example, acetone (CH₃COCH₃).
Functional Group (C=O)

Stereoscopic

Stereochemistry is the study of the spatial arrangement of atoms in molecules and how it affects their physical and chemical properties. Organic molecules can exist in different isomers, which are compounds with the same formula but different arrangements of atoms. Some important stereochemistry concepts include:

  • Chirality: A molecule is chiral if it has mirror images that do not superimpose on each other. These molecules have enantiomers, which are mirror images of each other, just like a person has a left and right hand.
  • Stereoisomers: Stereoisomers have the same molecular and structural formula, but differ in the spatial arrangement of the atoms. Examples include cis-trans isomers and enantiomers.

Chirality is an essential concept in pharmaceuticals, as one enantiomer may have a therapeutic effect, while the other may be harmful.

Applications of organic chemistry

Organic chemistry plays a vital role in daily life and is important in many industries. Some major applications include:

  • Pharmaceuticals: Organic chemistry is at the heart of drug development and synthetic pharmaceuticals, the design of new drugs based on organic compounds.
  • Agriculture: Organic compounds such as pesticides and fertilizers increase productivity and protect crops from pests and diseases.
  • Polymers: Organic chemistry is essential in making polymers such as plastics, rubber, and fibers, which have wide applications in industries and homes.
  • Biochemistry: Understanding the chemistry of life involves organic molecules including nucleic acids, proteins, and carbohydrates.

Polymer

Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating structural units called monomers. These are held together by covalent bonds. Organic polymers are prevalent in everyday life, and include both synthetic polymers such as plastics and natural polymers such as proteins and DNA.

-[CH₂-CH₂]_n- (Polyethylene) -[NH-CHR-CO]_n- (Polypeptide)

Closing thoughts

The vast field of organic chemistry is fundamental to many scientific and applied fields. Its exploration and study provides insights into the molecular basis of life and the basis for many technological advances. From simple hydrocarbons to complex biomolecules, organic chemistry remains a dynamic and important science that continues to evolve with the development of new technology and theoretical approaches.


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