PHD
  1. Inorganic chemistry  1.1. Coordination chemistry  1.1.1. Ligand field theory  1.1.2. Crystal field theory  1.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory for Coordination Compounds  1.1.4. Stability of Coordination Compounds  1.1.5. Electronic spectra of coordination compounds  1.1.6. Isomerism in Coordination Compounds  1.1.7. Kinetics and mechanism of coordination reactions  1.2. Organometallic Chemistry  1.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  1.2.2. Metal alkyl and aryl  1.2.3. Fischer and Schrock carbonaceans  1.2.4. Oxidative Addition and Reductive Elimination  1.2.5. Metal Hydrides  1.2.6. Catalysis by organometallic compounds  1.2.7. Metallocenes and Sandwich Complexes  1.2.8. CH activation  1.3. Solid state chemistry  1.3.1. Crystal structures and lattices  1.3.2. Band theory and electrical properties  1.3.3. Defects in the crystal  1.3.4. Synthesis of solid state materials  1.3.5. Magnetic and optical properties of solids  1.3.6. Superconductivity  1.3.7. Solid state ionics  1.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  1.4.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  1.4.2. Metal ion transport and storage  1.4.3. The role of metals in medicine  1.4.4. Bioinspired catalysis  1.4.5. Metal–DNA interactions  1.4.6. Metal Complexes in Medical Science  1.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.1. Electronic configuration and oxidation states in lanthanides and actinides  1.5.2. Spectral and Magnetic Properties in Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.3. Separation and Extraction of Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.4. Coordination chemistry of f-block elements  1.6. Main Group Chemistry  1.6.1. Chemistry of boron compounds  1.6.2. Chemistry of Silicon and Germanium Compounds  1.6.3. Chemistry of Phosphorus and Sulfur Compounds  1.6.4. Organosilicon chemistry  1.6.5. Noble Gas Chemistry
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition and substitution reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.1.7. Photochemical reactions  2.2. Stereoscopic  2.2.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.2.2. Structural analysis  2.2.3. Stereoelectronic effects  2.2.4. Asymmetric synthesis  2.2.5. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.3. Organometallic Chemistry in Organic Synthesis  2.3.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.3.2. Transition metal catalyzed coupling reactions  2.3.3. Palladium-catalyzed reactions  2.3.4. Olefin Metathesis  2.3.5. Gold and silver catalysis  2.4. Natural products chemistry  2.4.1. Alkaloids and terpenoids  2.4.2. Steroids and Flavonoids  2.4.3. Total synthesis of natural products  2.4.4. Biosynthesis of natural products  2.5. Supramolecular Chemistry  2.5.1. Host-Guest Chemistry  2.5.2. Self-assembly and molecular recognition  2.5.3. Supramolecular Catalysis  2.5.4. Molecular Machines
  3. Physical Chemistry  3.1. Thermodynamics  3.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  3.1.2. Chemical Potential and Equilibrium  3.1.3. Statistical thermodynamics  3.1.4. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics  3.2. Quantum Chemistry  3.2.1. Schrödinger equation and its applications  3.2.2. Molecular orbital theory  3.2.3. Density functional theory  3.2.4. Post-Hartree–Fock methods  3.3. Chemical kinetics  3.3.1. Reaction rate theory  3.3.2. Mechanism and rate laws  3.3.3. Catalysis and enzyme kinetics  3.3.4. Reaction dynamics  3.4. Spectroscopy and molecular structure  3.4.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  3.4.2. UV-visible spectroscopy  3.4.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy  3.4.4. Mass Spectrometry  3.4.5. Raman Spectroscopy  3.5. Surface and Colloid Chemistry  3.5.1. Absorption and Catalysis  3.5.2. Surfactants and micelles  3.5.3. Colloidal Stability  3.5.4. Nanomaterials and Interfaces
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.1.4. Ion Chromatography  4.2. Electroanalytical techniques  4.2.1. Voltammetry and Polarography  4.2.2. Conductometry and potentiometry  4.2.3. Colometry  4.3. Spectroscopic Methods  4.3.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.3.2. Fluorescence Spectroscopy  4.3.3. X-ray diffraction  4.3.4. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  4.4. Chemometrics  4.4.1. Data processing and statistical methods  4.4.2. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.4.3. Machine Learning in Analytical Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.2. Quantum chemistry methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.4. Machine Learning in Chemistry  5.5. Ab initio molecular dynamics
  6. Biophysics and Medicinal Chemistry  6.1. Drug discovery and design  6.2. Enzyme kinetics and inhibition  6.3. Chemical biology approach  6.4. Protein-ligand interactions  6.5. Bioorthogonal chemistry
  7. Materials chemistry  7.1. Polymer chemistry  7.1.1. Polymerization mechanism  7.1.2. Functional Polymers  7.1.3. Biodegradable Polymer  7.1.4. Conducting and semiconducting polymers  7.2. Nano Chemistry  7.2.1. Nanoparticles and nanostructures  7.2.2. Carbon-based nanomaterials  7.2.3. Quantum dots  7.3. Energy and Environmental Chemistry  7.3.1. Battery and Fuel Cell Chemistry  7.3.2. Green chemistry and sustainable materials  7.3.3. Photocatalysis

PHD → Inorganic chemistry → Solid state chemistry ↓


Synthesis of solid state materials


Introduction

The synthesis of solid state materials is a fundamental aspect of solid state chemistry, which focuses on the creation of materials with unique properties and applications. Solid state materials are continually growing in importance in a variety of technological applications, including semiconductors, superconductors, and magnetic materials. The field considers various techniques for producing solid materials, focusing on their structure, composition, and inherent physical properties.

Basic concepts

Solid-state materials are defined by their rigid, structured nature in which atoms or molecules are arranged in a repeating pattern that extends throughout the material. This arrangement is called a crystal lattice. The basic building blocks of these lattices are unit cells, which are the smallest repeating units in the structure.

Crystals and lattices

A clear understanding of crystal lattices is essential for the synthesis of solid-state materials. Crystals are classified based on their symmetry and repetition, forming different types such as cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal and others. Each type of crystal structure can affect the physical properties of the resulting material, influencing factors such as hardness, conductivity and optical properties.

Methods of synthesis

There are many methods used in the synthesis of solid-state materials. These approaches often vary depending on the desired material properties, required purity levels, and the applications they are intended for. Some common methods include solid-state reactions, sol-gel processes, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), and hydrothermal synthesis.

Solid state reactions

Solid state reactions involve mixing and heating solid reactants, so that a reaction is induced and a new solid product is formed. This method is widely used because it is simple and cost-effective. However, it often requires high temperatures and long reaction times.

A + B → AB

The above equation shows the transformation of reactants A and B into product AB. During the entire reaction, diffusion plays an important role because the reactants must come into contact at the atomic level to react effectively.

A B feedback

Sol-gel process

The sol-gel process is a versatile method of forming solid materials from small molecules. This chemical solution deposition technique involves the transition from a colloidal solution (sol) to an integrated network (gel). This method allows precise control over the chemical composition and microstructure of the material.

M(OR)n + H2O → M(OH)n + ROH M(OH)n → MOM + H2O

Here, metal alkoxides M(OR)n react with water to form metal hydroxides M(OH)n, which further undergo condensation to form metal oxide networks and water.

Fifth note of musical scale Jail

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD)

CVD is another important method used to produce high-purity solids. In this process, gaseous reactants are reacted or decomposed on a heated substrate to form solid products, which gradually deposit a thin film on the surface of the substrate. CVD is used especially in the semiconductor industry to produce films with desired properties.

SiH4 (g) → Si (s) + 2H2 (g)

This reaction shows the formation of a solid material called silicon by the decomposition of silane gas (SiH4), which is deposited on the substrate and liberates hydrogen gas.

SiH4 Si + H2

Hydrothermal synthesis

Hydrothermal synthesis is a technique for growing crystals from aqueous solutions at high temperatures and pressures. This method is particularly useful for producing complex crystalline structures that require a stable environment to form correctly.

MO + H2O (subcritical) → MO•nH2O or MO•H2O (crystal)

In this equation, a metal oxide (MO) reacts with water under subcritical conditions, leading to the formation of stable hydrated crystal structures.

MO H2O

Characterisation of solid state materials

To confirm the success of the synthesis and to ensure that the material has the desired properties, it is necessary to characterize the properties and structure of the solid state material. Techniques used for characterization include X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR).

X-ray diffraction (XRD)

XRD is a powerful technique for analyzing crystal structures. It provides information about the lattice parameters and atomic organization within a crystal by observing the patterns produced when X-rays are diffracted through the material.

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

The SEM allows the morphology of a material's surface to be viewed with high resolution. It provides images by scanning a focused electron beam across the material, revealing details of surface structures and textures.

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

FTIR is used to obtain the infrared spectrum of the absorption or emission of a solid substance. By detecting specific absorption peaks, FTIR helps to identify the different chemical bonds and functional groups present within a substance.

Applications of solid state materials

Solid-state materials have important applications in many industries due to their unique properties. For example, semiconductors such as silicon are central to electronic devices, while superconductors hold promise for future advances in energy transmission, and magnetic materials are essential in data storage technologies.

Semiconductors

Semiconductors are materials whose electrical conductivity lies between conductors and insulators. Examples include elements such as silicon and compounds such as gallium arsenide. These materials power devices such as transistors, diodes, and integrated circuits.

Superconductors

Superconductors exhibit zero electrical resistance and expulsion of magnetic fields below a critical temperature. These unique properties make them essential in applications such as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and potential future applications in power transmission and maglev trains.

Magnetic materials

Magnetic materials such as ferrites and magnetic alloys are used extensively in hard disks, memory storage, transformers, and motors. The ability to retain a magnetic field or to become magnetized is central to their functionality in these applications.

Conclusion

The synthesis of solid-state materials is a diverse field, which is crucial for various technological advancements. Through various synthesis methods such as solid-state reactions, sol-gel processes, CVD and hydrothermal synthesis, scientists can design materials with specific structures and properties optimized for various applications. Continuous progress and innovations in synthesis techniques will advance both the understanding and application of solid-state materials in the future.


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Synthesis of solid state materials

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