PHD
  1. Inorganic chemistry  1.1. Coordination chemistry  1.1.1. Ligand field theory  1.1.2. Crystal field theory  1.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory for Coordination Compounds  1.1.4. Stability of Coordination Compounds  1.1.5. Electronic spectra of coordination compounds  1.1.6. Isomerism in Coordination Compounds  1.1.7. Kinetics and mechanism of coordination reactions  1.2. Organometallic Chemistry  1.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  1.2.2. Metal alkyl and aryl  1.2.3. Fischer and Schrock carbonaceans  1.2.4. Oxidative Addition and Reductive Elimination  1.2.5. Metal Hydrides  1.2.6. Catalysis by organometallic compounds  1.2.7. Metallocenes and Sandwich Complexes  1.2.8. CH activation  1.3. Solid state chemistry  1.3.1. Crystal structures and lattices  1.3.2. Band theory and electrical properties  1.3.3. Defects in the crystal  1.3.4. Synthesis of solid state materials  1.3.5. Magnetic and optical properties of solids  1.3.6. Superconductivity  1.3.7. Solid state ionics  1.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  1.4.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  1.4.2. Metal ion transport and storage  1.4.3. The role of metals in medicine  1.4.4. Bioinspired catalysis  1.4.5. Metal–DNA interactions  1.4.6. Metal Complexes in Medical Science  1.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.1. Electronic configuration and oxidation states in lanthanides and actinides  1.5.2. Spectral and Magnetic Properties in Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.3. Separation and Extraction of Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.4. Coordination chemistry of f-block elements  1.6. Main Group Chemistry  1.6.1. Chemistry of boron compounds  1.6.2. Chemistry of Silicon and Germanium Compounds  1.6.3. Chemistry of Phosphorus and Sulfur Compounds  1.6.4. Organosilicon chemistry  1.6.5. Noble Gas Chemistry
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition and substitution reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.1.7. Photochemical reactions  2.2. Stereoscopic  2.2.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.2.2. Structural analysis  2.2.3. Stereoelectronic effects  2.2.4. Asymmetric synthesis  2.2.5. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.3. Organometallic Chemistry in Organic Synthesis  2.3.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.3.2. Transition metal catalyzed coupling reactions  2.3.3. Palladium-catalyzed reactions  2.3.4. Olefin Metathesis  2.3.5. Gold and silver catalysis  2.4. Natural products chemistry  2.4.1. Alkaloids and terpenoids  2.4.2. Steroids and Flavonoids  2.4.3. Total synthesis of natural products  2.4.4. Biosynthesis of natural products  2.5. Supramolecular Chemistry  2.5.1. Host-Guest Chemistry  2.5.2. Self-assembly and molecular recognition  2.5.3. Supramolecular Catalysis  2.5.4. Molecular Machines
  3. Physical Chemistry  3.1. Thermodynamics  3.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  3.1.2. Chemical Potential and Equilibrium  3.1.3. Statistical thermodynamics  3.1.4. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics  3.2. Quantum Chemistry  3.2.1. Schrödinger equation and its applications  3.2.2. Molecular orbital theory  3.2.3. Density functional theory  3.2.4. Post-Hartree–Fock methods  3.3. Chemical kinetics  3.3.1. Reaction rate theory  3.3.2. Mechanism and rate laws  3.3.3. Catalysis and enzyme kinetics  3.3.4. Reaction dynamics  3.4. Spectroscopy and molecular structure  3.4.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  3.4.2. UV-visible spectroscopy  3.4.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy  3.4.4. Mass Spectrometry  3.4.5. Raman Spectroscopy  3.5. Surface and Colloid Chemistry  3.5.1. Absorption and Catalysis  3.5.2. Surfactants and micelles  3.5.3. Colloidal Stability  3.5.4. Nanomaterials and Interfaces
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.1.4. Ion Chromatography  4.2. Electroanalytical techniques  4.2.1. Voltammetry and Polarography  4.2.2. Conductometry and potentiometry  4.2.3. Colometry  4.3. Spectroscopic Methods  4.3.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.3.2. Fluorescence Spectroscopy  4.3.3. X-ray diffraction  4.3.4. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  4.4. Chemometrics  4.4.1. Data processing and statistical methods  4.4.2. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.4.3. Machine Learning in Analytical Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.2. Quantum chemistry methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.4. Machine Learning in Chemistry  5.5. Ab initio molecular dynamics
  6. Biophysics and Medicinal Chemistry  6.1. Drug discovery and design  6.2. Enzyme kinetics and inhibition  6.3. Chemical biology approach  6.4. Protein-ligand interactions  6.5. Bioorthogonal chemistry
  7. Materials chemistry  7.1. Polymer chemistry  7.1.1. Polymerization mechanism  7.1.2. Functional Polymers  7.1.3. Biodegradable Polymer  7.1.4. Conducting and semiconducting polymers  7.2. Nano Chemistry  7.2.1. Nanoparticles and nanostructures  7.2.2. Carbon-based nanomaterials  7.2.3. Quantum dots  7.3. Energy and Environmental Chemistry  7.3.1. Battery and Fuel Cell Chemistry  7.3.2. Green chemistry and sustainable materials  7.3.3. Photocatalysis

PHD → Inorganic chemistry ↓


Main Group Chemistry


Main group chemistry deals with the study of the chemical elements in groups 1, 2, and 13 to 18 of the periodic table, excluding the d-block (transition metals) and f-block (lanthanides and actinides). These elements are sometimes referred to as "s" and "p" block elements because the outermost electrons of these elements are in an "s" or "p" orbital in their ground state configuration. Main group elements include familiar and diverse elements such as hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, as well as sodium, silicon, and chlorine. They are foundational in both organic and inorganic chemistry because of their wide reactivity and importance in forming compounds.

Group 1: Alkali metals

The alkali metals include lithium (Li), sodium (Na), potassium (K), rubidium (Rb), cesium (Cs), and francium (Fr). These elements are highly reactive, especially with water, producing hydrogen gas and the corresponding hydroxide according to the following general reaction:

        2M + 2H₂O → 2MOH + H₂

where M denotes an alkali metal. Reactivity increases going down the group, with lithium being the least reactive and francium being the most reactive.

Took No K RB C Father

These elements are soft and have low melting points. They easily lose their single valence electron to form +1 cations. For example:

        Na → Na⁺ + e⁻

Alkali metals play important roles in a variety of applications ranging from biological systems (e.g., sodium and potassium ions for nerve function) to industry (e.g., lithium in batteries).

Group 2: Alkaline earth metals

The alkaline earth metals include beryllium (Be), magnesium (Mg), calcium (Ca), strontium (Sr), barium (Ba), and radium (Ra). These metals are also reactive, although less so than their Group 1 counterparts. They tend to form +2 ions, as shown in the reactions below:

        Ca → Ca²⁺ + 2e⁻

Like the alkali metals, their reactivity and softness increase as one goes down the group. The alkaline earth metals are found primarily in minerals. Common examples include magnesium in magnesium oxide and calcium in calcium carbonate.

Happen Milligrams CA SR B.A RA

The alkaline earth metals figure prominently in substances and biological processes. For example, calcium is essential for bone formation and muscle contraction, while magnesium is a central element in chlorophyll.

Group 13: Boron group

This group includes boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In) and thallium (Tl). Boron is a metalloid, while the others are metals. These elements typically form +3 oxidation states, although thallium can also exhibit a +1 state.

        Al → Al³⁺ + 3e⁻

Boron forms covalent bonds and is included in boron and polymers such as borosilicate glass. In contrast, aluminum forms a protective oxide layer that makes it resistant to corrosion, and its compounds such as aluminum oxide are widely used in industry.

B Al Sing In TL

Aluminum stands out in industrial uses due to its abundance and favorable properties. It is essential in manufacturing, packaging, and transportation. Boron is important in chemistry because it supports hypotheses and theories about electron-deficient compounds.

Group 14: The carbon group

The carbon group includes carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), tin (Sn) and lead (Pb). While carbon is a nonmetal, silicon and germanium are metalloids, and tin and lead are metals. This group is known for its tetravalency, especially in carbon.

        CH₄ contains carbon which forms four single bonds with hydrogen atoms.

Carbon's ability to form stable bonds with itself allows for a wide range of compounds, making organic chemistry vast and varied. Silicon is important in the electronics industry, primarily in the form of silicon dioxide and as a semiconductor.

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Lead and tin are less reactive and are used in alloys and industry. Lead was used in pipes because of its softness and malleability, but its toxicity was later discovered.

Group 15: Nitrogen group

Group 15 includes nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi). These elements typically exhibit oxidation states of -3, +3 and +5, with nitrogen often forming triple bonds, such as in molecular nitrogen (N₂).

        N₂: a triple bond

Nitrogen fixation is vital to life, allowing plants to assimilate an essential nutrient. Phosphorus, particularly in the form of phosphate, is important in DNA, RNA, and ATP, which play vital roles in biology.

N P As SB Bi

Antimony and arsenic have notable uses in alloys and electronics. Bismuth, a low melting point metal, is used in low melting point alloys and as a non-toxic substitute for lead in a variety of applications.

Group 16: Oxygen group

Often referred to as chalcogens, this group consists of oxygen (O), sulfur (S), selenium (Se), tellurium (Te) and polonium (Po). These elements are characterized by the ability to form -2 oxidation state compounds, in which oxygen forms important substances such as water and oxides.

        H₂ + ½O₂ → H₂O

Oxygen is fundamental for respiration and energy production in living organisms, as well as oxidation reactions. Sulfur is important for its role in proteins (such as in the amino acids cysteine and methionine) and as sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) in industrial processes.

Hey S From They Drink

Selenium is important in biology and semiconductors, while tellurium adds properties to alloys such as increased machinability. Polonium, because of its radioactivity, finds applications in nuclear technology, although it is rare.

Group 17: The halogens

Halogens include fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), iodine (I) and astatine (At). Known for their high reactivity, halogens typically gain a single electron to complete their valence shell, forming -1 ions:

        Cl₂ + 2e⁻ → 2Cl⁻

This group exhibits high electronegativities and reacts with metals to form salts. For example, sodium and chlorine form:

        2Na + Cl₂ → 2NaCl

Fluorine being the most reactive is used in fluoride compounds and Teflon. Chlorine is important for disinfection and the production of PVC. Iodine is important in medicine and nutrition.

F Chlorine BR I But

Bromine and iodine are widely used in medical and photographic applications. Astatine, being rare and radioactive, has little use outside of research.

Group 18: Noble gases

The noble gases include helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe) and radon (Rn). Their complete outer electron shells make them largely inert, although a few compounds, especially of xenon, are known:

        Xe + F₂ → XeF₂

Helium is fundamental for applications requiring non-flammability and low density, such as in balloons and blimps. Neon is famous for its vibrant glow in electric signs, while argon is used as an inert atmosphere in a variety of processes.

He By AR Sl Ze RN

Xenon is used in lighting production, from photographic flashes to powerful lamps. Radon, despite being rare, poses a health hazard with possible radiation emissions into soil and homes.

Main group chemistry covers a wide range of chemical properties and phenomena. These elements and their compounds form the basis for our understanding of chemistry, showing great diversity in behavior, structure, and application.

The study of main group chemistry provides essential insights into element reactivity and interactions crucial for understanding technological advancements and the molecular mechanisms of life. Whether forming stable carbon frameworks or reactive halogen bridges, main group elements are important in both theoretical chemistry and practical applications in a variety of industries.


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Main Group Chemistry

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