PHD
  1. Inorganic chemistry  1.1. Coordination chemistry  1.1.1. Ligand field theory  1.1.2. Crystal field theory  1.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory for Coordination Compounds  1.1.4. Stability of Coordination Compounds  1.1.5. Electronic spectra of coordination compounds  1.1.6. Isomerism in Coordination Compounds  1.1.7. Kinetics and mechanism of coordination reactions  1.2. Organometallic Chemistry  1.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  1.2.2. Metal alkyl and aryl  1.2.3. Fischer and Schrock carbonaceans  1.2.4. Oxidative Addition and Reductive Elimination  1.2.5. Metal Hydrides  1.2.6. Catalysis by organometallic compounds  1.2.7. Metallocenes and Sandwich Complexes  1.2.8. CH activation  1.3. Solid state chemistry  1.3.1. Crystal structures and lattices  1.3.2. Band theory and electrical properties  1.3.3. Defects in the crystal  1.3.4. Synthesis of solid state materials  1.3.5. Magnetic and optical properties of solids  1.3.6. Superconductivity  1.3.7. Solid state ionics  1.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  1.4.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  1.4.2. Metal ion transport and storage  1.4.3. The role of metals in medicine  1.4.4. Bioinspired catalysis  1.4.5. Metal–DNA interactions  1.4.6. Metal Complexes in Medical Science  1.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.1. Electronic configuration and oxidation states in lanthanides and actinides  1.5.2. Spectral and Magnetic Properties in Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.3. Separation and Extraction of Lanthanides and Actinides  1.5.4. Coordination chemistry of f-block elements  1.6. Main Group Chemistry  1.6.1. Chemistry of boron compounds  1.6.2. Chemistry of Silicon and Germanium Compounds  1.6.3. Chemistry of Phosphorus and Sulfur Compounds  1.6.4. Organosilicon chemistry  1.6.5. Noble Gas Chemistry
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition and substitution reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.1.7. Photochemical reactions  2.2. Stereoscopic  2.2.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.2.2. Structural analysis  2.2.3. Stereoelectronic effects  2.2.4. Asymmetric synthesis  2.2.5. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.3. Organometallic Chemistry in Organic Synthesis  2.3.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.3.2. Transition metal catalyzed coupling reactions  2.3.3. Palladium-catalyzed reactions  2.3.4. Olefin Metathesis  2.3.5. Gold and silver catalysis  2.4. Natural products chemistry  2.4.1. Alkaloids and terpenoids  2.4.2. Steroids and Flavonoids  2.4.3. Total synthesis of natural products  2.4.4. Biosynthesis of natural products  2.5. Supramolecular Chemistry  2.5.1. Host-Guest Chemistry  2.5.2. Self-assembly and molecular recognition  2.5.3. Supramolecular Catalysis  2.5.4. Molecular Machines
  3. Physical Chemistry  3.1. Thermodynamics  3.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  3.1.2. Chemical Potential and Equilibrium  3.1.3. Statistical thermodynamics  3.1.4. Non-equilibrium thermodynamics  3.2. Quantum Chemistry  3.2.1. Schrödinger equation and its applications  3.2.2. Molecular orbital theory  3.2.3. Density functional theory  3.2.4. Post-Hartree–Fock methods  3.3. Chemical kinetics  3.3.1. Reaction rate theory  3.3.2. Mechanism and rate laws  3.3.3. Catalysis and enzyme kinetics  3.3.4. Reaction dynamics  3.4. Spectroscopy and molecular structure  3.4.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  3.4.2. UV-visible spectroscopy  3.4.3. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy  3.4.4. Mass Spectrometry  3.4.5. Raman Spectroscopy  3.5. Surface and Colloid Chemistry  3.5.1. Absorption and Catalysis  3.5.2. Surfactants and micelles  3.5.3. Colloidal Stability  3.5.4. Nanomaterials and Interfaces
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.1.4. Ion Chromatography  4.2. Electroanalytical techniques  4.2.1. Voltammetry and Polarography  4.2.2. Conductometry and potentiometry  4.2.3. Colometry  4.3. Spectroscopic Methods  4.3.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.3.2. Fluorescence Spectroscopy  4.3.3. X-ray diffraction  4.3.4. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  4.4. Chemometrics  4.4.1. Data processing and statistical methods  4.4.2. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.4.3. Machine Learning in Analytical Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.2. Quantum chemistry methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.4. Machine Learning in Chemistry  5.5. Ab initio molecular dynamics
  6. Biophysics and Medicinal Chemistry  6.1. Drug discovery and design  6.2. Enzyme kinetics and inhibition  6.3. Chemical biology approach  6.4. Protein-ligand interactions  6.5. Bioorthogonal chemistry
  7. Materials chemistry  7.1. Polymer chemistry  7.1.1. Polymerization mechanism  7.1.2. Functional Polymers  7.1.3. Biodegradable Polymer  7.1.4. Conducting and semiconducting polymers  7.2. Nano Chemistry  7.2.1. Nanoparticles and nanostructures  7.2.2. Carbon-based nanomaterials  7.2.3. Quantum dots  7.3. Energy and Environmental Chemistry  7.3.1. Battery and Fuel Cell Chemistry  7.3.2. Green chemistry and sustainable materials  7.3.3. Photocatalysis

PHD → Organic chemistry → Natural products chemistry ↓


Steroids and Flavonoids


Introduction

In the field of organic chemistry, natural products play an important role. Natural products are chemical compounds or substances produced by living organisms found in nature. Among natural products, steroids and flavonoids hold a prominent position because of their diverse biochemical roles and important medicinal properties. In this lesson, we will explore these two classes of compounds in detail, examining their structures, functions, and applications.

Steroids: structure and function

Steroids are a type of organic compound characterized by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings arranged in a specific configuration known as a cyclopentaneperhydrophenanthrene or tetracyclic structure. Despite sharing the basic structure, steroids differ significantly due to differences in the functional groups attached to these rings.

Here's a basic illustration of the steroid core structure:

The four rings in the steroid core are generally labeled A, B, C, and D. Variations in the side chains and functional groups attached to this core determine the specific type and function of the steroid. Examples include cholesterol, testosterone, and cortisol.

Cholesterol

Cholesterol is probably the best-known steroid, playing a vital role in maintaining the integrity of cell membranes and serving as a precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones, bile acids, and vitamin D.

C27H46O

Steroidal hormones

Steroidal hormones include glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestogens. These hormones regulate a variety of physiological processes, such as immune response, metabolism, and reproduction. Slight differences in functional groups result in the diversity of functionality of these hormones.

Flavonoids: structure and function

Flavonoids are another important class of natural compounds, primarily known for their role as pigments found in various plants. The basic structural feature of flavonoids is a 15-carbon skeleton, consisting of two phenyl rings and a heterocyclic ring.

Flavonoids can be divided into several subclasses such as flavones, flavonols, flavanones, isoflavones and others. Each subclass differs in the degree and pattern of hydroxylation and glycosylation.

Flavonoid examples

Quercetin is a type of flavonol known for its antioxidant properties:

C15H10O7

Genistein is an isoflavone found in soy products and is known for its antioxidant and potentially anti-cancer properties:

C15H10O5

Biological activity and applications

Steroids

Steroids, because of their various physiological roles, are used extensively in medicine. For example, corticosteroids such as prednisone are used to treat inflammatory conditions and autoimmune diseases. Anabolic steroids, synthetic derivatives of testosterone, are sometimes used to treat certain hormonal imbalances, although they are controversial because of their misuse in sports.

Flavonoids

Flavonoids, due to their antioxidant properties, exhibit potential health benefits including anti-inflammatory, antiviral, and anticarcinogenic activities. They are widely studied for their potential to prevent cardiovascular diseases and cancer.

Conclusion

In conclusion, steroids and flavonoids are important components of natural product chemistry with diverse structures and important biological activities. Their role in human health and disease makes them important subjects of study in organic chemistry and pharmacology. Understanding the intricacies of their structures and functions allows us to exploit their benefits in drugs and supplements, contributing to advances in healthcare.


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Steroids and Flavonoids

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