Grade 11
  1. Basic concepts of chemistry  1.1. Importance of Chemistry  1.2. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.3. laws of chemical combination  1.3.1. Law of conservation of mass  1.3.2. Law of definite proportions  1.3.3. Law of multiple proportions  1.3.4. Law of gaseous volume  1.3.5. Avogadro's Law  1.4. Dalton's atomic theory  1.5. Mole concept and molar mass  1.6. Percent composition  1.7. Empirical and molecular formula  1.8. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations  1.9. Limiting reagent concept
  2. Structure of the atom  2.1. Discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron  2.2. Atomic Model  2.2.1. Thomson's model  2.2.2. Rutherford's model  2.2.3. Bohr's model  2.3. Quantum mechanical model of the atom  2.4. Dual nature of matter and radiation  2.5. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle  2.6. Quantum numbers  2.7. Atomic orbitals and their shapes  2.8. Electronic configuration of elements  2.9. Aufbau principle  2.10. Pauli's exclusion principle  2.11. Hund's maximum multiplicity rule  2.12. de Broglie's hypothesis  2.13. Photoelectric effect
  3. Classification of elements and periodicity in properties  3.1. Historical development of the periodic table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table  3.3. Periodic trends in properties  3.3.1. Atomic and Ionic Radius  3.3.2. Ionization enthalpy  3.3.3. Electron gain enthalpy  3.3.4. Electronegativity  3.3.5. Valency  3.3.6. Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties  3.3.7. Oxidation states  3.4. Unusual Properties of the First Elements
  4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  4.1. Kossel–Lewis approach to chemical bonding  4.2. Ionic or electrovalent bond  4.3. Covalent bond and its features  4.4. Bond parameters  4.5. VSEPR Theory  4.6. Valence bond theory  4.7. Hybridization and its types  4.8. Molecular orbital theory  4.8.1. Bond order and stability  4.9. Hydrogen bonding
  5. States of matter  5.1. Intermolecular forces  5.2. Gas Laws  5.2.1. Boyle's law  5.2.2. Charles's Law  5.2.3. Avogadro's Law  5.2.4. Dalton's law of partial pressure  5.2.5. Graham's law of spread  5.3. Ideal Gas Equation and Applications  5.4. Real gases and deviations from ideal behaviour  5.5. Kinetic molecular theory of gases  5.6. Liquefaction of gases  5.7. Properties of Liquids  5.8. Surface tension and viscosity
  6. Thermodynamics  6.1. System and environment  6.2. Types of systems in thermodynamics  6.3. Types of procedures  6.4. First law of thermodynamics  6.5. Internal energy and enthalpy  6.6. Heat capacity and specific heat  6.7. Hess's law of constant heat summation  6.8. Bond dissociation enthalpy  6.9. Enthalpy of formation and combustion  6.10. Enthalpy of solution and neutralization  6.11. Spontaneity and the second law of thermodynamics  6.12. Gibbs free energy and its applications
  7. Balance  7.1. The concept of balance  7.2. Equilibrium constant and its applications  7.3. Le Chatelier's principle  7.4. Ionic equilibrium in solutions  7.5. Acid and Base Theory  7.5.1. Arrhenius concept  7.5.2. Bronsted-Lowry concept  7.5.3. Lewis concept  7.6. pH Scale and pOH  7.7. Common ion effect  7.8. Hydrolysis of salts  7.9. Buffer solutions and their mechanism of action  7.10. Solubility equilibrium of sparingly soluble salts
  8. Redox reactions  8.1. Oxidation and reduction concepts  8.2. Oxidation number and its applications  8.3. Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer  8.4. Balancing redox reactions (oxidation number and ion-electron methods)  8.5. Types of redox reactions  8.6. Electrochemical Cells and Redox Reactions
  9. Hydrogen  9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table  9.2. Isotopes of hydrogen  9.3. Preparation of Hydrogen  9.4. Properties of Hydrogen  9.5. Hydrides and their classification  9.6. Water and heavy water  9.7. Hydrogen peroxide and its properties  9.8. Uses of Hydrogen and Its Compounds
  10. S-block elements (alkali and alkaline earth metals)  10.1. Group 1 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.2. Group 2 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.3. Unusual properties of lithium and beryllium  10.4. Important compounds of sodium and their uses  10.5. Important Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium
  11. Some p-block elements  11.1. General Introduction to p-Block Elements  11.2. Group 13 Elements  11.2.1. Boron and its compounds  11.3. Group 14 Elements  11.3.1. Carbon and its allotropes  11.3.2. Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
  12. Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques  12.1. Classification and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds  12.2. Structural representation of organic compounds  12.3. Classification of organic reactions  12.4. Electronic Effects in Organic Chemistry  12.4.1. Inductive effect  12.4.2. Resonance effect  12.4.3. Hyperconjugation  12.5. Reaction mechanism and intermediate species  12.6. Purification and qualitative analysis of organic compounds
  13. Hydrocarbons  13.1. Hydrocarbons  13.1.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2. alkene  13.2.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  13.3. Alkynes  13.3.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkynes  13.4. Aromatic hydrocarbons  13.4.1. Structure and properties of benzene  13.4.2. Electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene
  14. Environmental Chemistry  14.1. Environmental Pollution  14.2. Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect  14.3. Water pollution and treatment methods  14.4. Soil pollution and its effects  14.5. Industrial waste and its treatment  14.6. Strategies for pollution control

Grade 11 ↓


Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques


Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds, which are the basis of life on Earth. Although carbon compounds have been a part of human existence for centuries, understanding these compounds requires unique methods and principles, which are the focus of this chapter.

What is organic chemistry?

Organic chemistry deals with the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and synthesis of compounds containing carbon. These include not only hydrocarbons but also compounds with many other elements, including hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur.

Organic compounds are found all around us – in foods, medicines, plastics and even the air we breathe.

Bonding in Carbon: Covalent Bonding

The carbon atom, which has atomic number 6, has four electrons in its outer shell. Therefore, it forms four covalent bonds with other atoms. Covalent bonding involves the sharing of electrons between atoms.

    Example: methane ( CH4 )
    The carbon atom forms four single covalent bonds with the hydrogen atom.
    
         H
         ,
    H -- C -- H
         ,
         H

The sharing of electrons makes it possible to form different organic molecules with different properties and functions.

Structural representation of organic compounds

Organic molecules can be represented in many ways. Here are the common types:

1. Lewis structures

These include all the atoms in the molecule and their respective bonds. They also clearly show the lone pairs of electrons.

    Example: Ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH)
         HH
         ,
    H -- C -- C -- O -- H
         ,    
         HH

2. Condensed structural formula

In these, the carbon and hydrogen labels and bonds are omitted, making it easier to quickly see the molecule.

    Example: Ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH)
    CH 3 CH 2 OH

3. Bond-line formulas

These further abbreviate the representation by using lines to represent carbon-carbon bonds. The end of each line represents a carbon atom, and hydrogen atoms are considered.

    Example: Butane ( C4H10 )
    CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3
    In simplified form: //

    Each end of the line represents a carbon atom, and the hydrogen atoms are not shown.

Functional groups in organic compounds

Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for specific chemical reactions of those molecules. Here are some examples:

1. Hydroxyl group (-OH)

Present in alcohols. An example of this is ethanol, as shown above.

2. Carboxyl group (-COOH)

Found in carboxylic acids such as acetic acid.

    Acetic acid ( CH3COOH )

3. Amino group ( -NH2 )

Present in amines and amino acids. An example of this is glycine, which is an amino acid.

4. Aldehyde group (-CHO)

It is found in aldehyde. An example of this is formaldehyde (HCHO).

IUPAC nomenclature

The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) provides a systematic approach to naming organic compounds, so that the name tells you something about the structure of the compound.

Basic rules

  • Name the longest carbon chain and use it as the base name.
  • Identify and name the substituents.
  • Number the chain to give the lowest number of substituents.
  • Combine the name with its substitutes in alphabetical order.

Consider the compound: 2-methylpentane.

This name tells us that the longest chain has 5 carbon atoms, and a methyl group is attached to the second carbon.

Of course, complex compounds have more complicated rules, such as dealing with double bonds, triple bonds, and functional groups, but the basic principles remain the same.

Isomerism in organic compounds

Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms. There are several types of isomerism:

1. Structural isomerism

Structural isomers have different covalent arrangements of their atoms.

    Example: Butane ( C4H10 )
    Normal butane: CH 3 CH 2 CH 2 CH 3
    Isobutane: CH 3 CH(CH 3 )CH 3

2. Geometrical isomerism

These isomers exist due to the inflexibility of the double bonds, which causes different spatial arrangements of atoms or groups.

    Example: 2-Butene (C 4 H 8 )
    cis-2-butene: CH 3 HC=CHCH 3
    trans-2-butene: CH 3 CH=CHCH 3

Purification techniques in organic chemistry

Pure compounds are needed to accurately study the properties of compounds. Thus, purification techniques are important in organic chemistry.

1. Distillation

It is used to separate mixtures based on the difference in boiling point. It is commonly used in the distillation of alcohol.

2. Crystallization

It involves dissolving a compound in a solvent and then precipitating it as crystals. This method relies on the varying solubility of compounds.

3. Chromatography

In this technique, the mixture is dissolved in a liquid and passed over a solid or viscous phase. Different components of the mixture move at different speeds, causing them to separate.

Conclusion

Organic chemistry is a rich and complex field that studies carbon compounds and their interactions. Understanding the basic principles and techniques forms a foundation for further study, including synthesis and reaction mechanisms.

With fundamentals such as bonding, nomenclature, structural representation, isomerism and purification techniques, one can delve deeper into specific areas of organic chemistry and contribute to fields ranging from pharmaceuticals to materials science.

As you continue to explore organic chemistry, keep in mind that practice and patience are key. Working through examples, reacting to different compounds, and visualizing molecules will deepen your understanding of how organic molecules interact and behave.


Grade 11 → 12


U
username
0%
completed in Grade 11

← Prev (11.3.2)
Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
Next (12.1) →
Classification and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds

Comments 



Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques

https://www.chemistryelite.com/g11/12?ceal=en