Grade 11
  1. Basic concepts of chemistry  1.1. Importance of Chemistry  1.2. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.3. laws of chemical combination  1.3.1. Law of conservation of mass  1.3.2. Law of definite proportions  1.3.3. Law of multiple proportions  1.3.4. Law of gaseous volume  1.3.5. Avogadro's Law  1.4. Dalton's atomic theory  1.5. Mole concept and molar mass  1.6. Percent composition  1.7. Empirical and molecular formula  1.8. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations  1.9. Limiting reagent concept
  2. Structure of the atom  2.1. Discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron  2.2. Atomic Model  2.2.1. Thomson's model  2.2.2. Rutherford's model  2.2.3. Bohr's model  2.3. Quantum mechanical model of the atom  2.4. Dual nature of matter and radiation  2.5. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle  2.6. Quantum numbers  2.7. Atomic orbitals and their shapes  2.8. Electronic configuration of elements  2.9. Aufbau principle  2.10. Pauli's exclusion principle  2.11. Hund's maximum multiplicity rule  2.12. de Broglie's hypothesis  2.13. Photoelectric effect
  3. Classification of elements and periodicity in properties  3.1. Historical development of the periodic table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table  3.3. Periodic trends in properties  3.3.1. Atomic and Ionic Radius  3.3.2. Ionization enthalpy  3.3.3. Electron gain enthalpy  3.3.4. Electronegativity  3.3.5. Valency  3.3.6. Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties  3.3.7. Oxidation states  3.4. Unusual Properties of the First Elements
  4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  4.1. Kossel–Lewis approach to chemical bonding  4.2. Ionic or electrovalent bond  4.3. Covalent bond and its features  4.4. Bond parameters  4.5. VSEPR Theory  4.6. Valence bond theory  4.7. Hybridization and its types  4.8. Molecular orbital theory  4.8.1. Bond order and stability  4.9. Hydrogen bonding
  5. States of matter  5.1. Intermolecular forces  5.2. Gas Laws  5.2.1. Boyle's law  5.2.2. Charles's Law  5.2.3. Avogadro's Law  5.2.4. Dalton's law of partial pressure  5.2.5. Graham's law of spread  5.3. Ideal Gas Equation and Applications  5.4. Real gases and deviations from ideal behaviour  5.5. Kinetic molecular theory of gases  5.6. Liquefaction of gases  5.7. Properties of Liquids  5.8. Surface tension and viscosity
  6. Thermodynamics  6.1. System and environment  6.2. Types of systems in thermodynamics  6.3. Types of procedures  6.4. First law of thermodynamics  6.5. Internal energy and enthalpy  6.6. Heat capacity and specific heat  6.7. Hess's law of constant heat summation  6.8. Bond dissociation enthalpy  6.9. Enthalpy of formation and combustion  6.10. Enthalpy of solution and neutralization  6.11. Spontaneity and the second law of thermodynamics  6.12. Gibbs free energy and its applications
  7. Balance  7.1. The concept of balance  7.2. Equilibrium constant and its applications  7.3. Le Chatelier's principle  7.4. Ionic equilibrium in solutions  7.5. Acid and Base Theory  7.5.1. Arrhenius concept  7.5.2. Bronsted-Lowry concept  7.5.3. Lewis concept  7.6. pH Scale and pOH  7.7. Common ion effect  7.8. Hydrolysis of salts  7.9. Buffer solutions and their mechanism of action  7.10. Solubility equilibrium of sparingly soluble salts
  8. Redox reactions  8.1. Oxidation and reduction concepts  8.2. Oxidation number and its applications  8.3. Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer  8.4. Balancing redox reactions (oxidation number and ion-electron methods)  8.5. Types of redox reactions  8.6. Electrochemical Cells and Redox Reactions
  9. Hydrogen  9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table  9.2. Isotopes of hydrogen  9.3. Preparation of Hydrogen  9.4. Properties of Hydrogen  9.5. Hydrides and their classification  9.6. Water and heavy water  9.7. Hydrogen peroxide and its properties  9.8. Uses of Hydrogen and Its Compounds
  10. S-block elements (alkali and alkaline earth metals)  10.1. Group 1 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.2. Group 2 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.3. Unusual properties of lithium and beryllium  10.4. Important compounds of sodium and their uses  10.5. Important Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium
  11. Some p-block elements  11.1. General Introduction to p-Block Elements  11.2. Group 13 Elements  11.2.1. Boron and its compounds  11.3. Group 14 Elements  11.3.1. Carbon and its allotropes  11.3.2. Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
  12. Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques  12.1. Classification and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds  12.2. Structural representation of organic compounds  12.3. Classification of organic reactions  12.4. Electronic Effects in Organic Chemistry  12.4.1. Inductive effect  12.4.2. Resonance effect  12.4.3. Hyperconjugation  12.5. Reaction mechanism and intermediate species  12.6. Purification and qualitative analysis of organic compounds
  13. Hydrocarbons  13.1. Hydrocarbons  13.1.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2. alkene  13.2.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  13.3. Alkynes  13.3.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkynes  13.4. Aromatic hydrocarbons  13.4.1. Structure and properties of benzene  13.4.2. Electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene
  14. Environmental Chemistry  14.1. Environmental Pollution  14.2. Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect  14.3. Water pollution and treatment methods  14.4. Soil pollution and its effects  14.5. Industrial waste and its treatment  14.6. Strategies for pollution control

Grade 11 → States of matter ↓


Gas Laws


The gas laws describe how gases behave with respect to temperature, pressure, and volume. These laws help us understand the nature and behavior of gases under different conditions, which is important in a variety of scientific and engineering applications. The gas laws are based on empirical observations and provide an essential framework for understanding how gases interact with their surroundings and each other. In this detailed guide, we will explore several major gas laws, including Boyle's law, Charles' law, Avogadro's law, Gay-Lussac's law, the combined gas law, and the ideal gas law, etc. These laws lay the foundation for more complex studies of gases and their properties.

Boyle's law

Boyle's law relates the pressure of a gas to its volume at a constant temperature. It states that the pressure of a fixed quantity of gas kept at a constant temperature varies inversely with the volume. In simple terms, if you increase the volume of a container without adding more gas or changing the temperature, the pressure will decrease and vice versa.

Mathematical expression

The mathematical equation of Boyle's law can be expressed as:

P₁V₁ = P₂V₂

Where:

  • P₁ and P₂ are the initial and final pressure, respectively.
  • V₁ and V₂ are the initial and final volumes, respectively.

Visual example

P₁, V₁ P₂, V₂

Text example

Imagine a sealed syringe with a cap at one end. When you press the syringe plunger, the volume inside decreases, increasing the pressure of the air trapped inside. Conversely, pulling the plunger back increases the volume, decreasing the pressure of the trapped air. Both of these scenarios are perfect demonstrations of Boyle's law.

Charles's law

This law states that the volume of a given mass of gas is directly proportional to its temperature, measured in Kelvin, as long as the pressure remains constant. In simple terms, if you increase the temperature of a gas, its volume increases, provided the pressure remains constant.

Mathematical expression

The equation of Charles's law is as follows:

V₁/T₁ = V₂/T₂

Where:

  • V₁ and V₂ are the initial and final volumes, respectively.
  • T₁ and T₂ are the initial and final temperatures, respectively, measured in Kelvin.

Visual example

T₁, V₁ T₂, V₂

Text example

Think of a balloon left outside on a hot day. As the temperature rises, the air inside the balloon gains energy and expands, increasing the size of the balloon. Conversely, if you cool the balloon by placing it in a refrigerator, the volume of the air decreases and the balloon shrinks.

Avogadro's law

Avogadro's law states that the volume of a gas at constant temperature and pressure is directly proportional to the number of moles of gas. This means that if you put more gas into a container, the volume will increase if the temperature and pressure remain the same.

Mathematical expression

The formula for Avogadro's law is:

V₁/n₁ = V₂/n₂

Where:

  • V₁ and V₂ are the initial and final volumes, respectively.
  • n₁ and n₂ are the initial and final moles of the gas, respectively.

Visual example

N₁, V₁ N₂, V₂

Text example

If you inflate two identical balloons with different amounts of air, the balloon with more air will be larger than the one with less air, provided the temperature and pressure conditions remain constant. This observation is explained by Avogadro's law.

Gay-Lussac's law

Gay-Lussac's law states the direct proportionality between the pressure and temperature of a gas at constant volume. In other words, increasing the temperature of a gas will increase its pressure if the volume remains unchanged.

Mathematical expression

The mathematical formula for Gay-Lussac's law is:

P₁/T₁ = P₂/T₂

Where:

  • P₁ and P₂ are the initial and final pressure, respectively.
  • T₁ and T₂ are the initial and final temperatures, respectively, measured in Kelvin.

Visual example

T₁, P₁ T₂, P₂

Text example

Consider a sealed can of spray paint that you leave open in the sun. As the temperature rises, the gas pressure inside the can increases, which is why pressurized containers should always be kept away from heat sources.

Combined gas law

The combined gas law combines Boyle's law, Charles' law, and Gay-Lussac's law. It relates the pressure, volume, and temperature of a given quantity of gas. This law is useful when you need to calculate the change in state of a gas where the pressure, volume, and temperature are all changing.

Mathematical expression

The formula for the combined gas law is:

(P₁V₁)/T₁ = (P₂V₂)/T₂

Where:

  • P₁, V₁, T₁ are the initial pressure, volume, and temperature, respectively.
  • P₂, V₂, T₂ are the final pressure, volume and temperature respectively.
  • The temperature must be in Kelvin.

Visual example

P₁, V₁, T₁ P₂, V₂, T₂

Text example

If you have a gas stored in a cylinder and you compress it to half its volume while increasing the temperature, the exact resulting pressure and temperature can be predicted using the combined gas law.

Ideal gas law

The ideal gas law is the equation of state for a hypothetical ideal gas. It is a good approximation of the behavior of many gases under a wide variety of conditions, although it has limitations. The law combines Boyle's law, Charles's law, and Avogadro's law.

Mathematical expression

The equation of the ideal gas law is:

PV = nRT

Where:

  • P is the pressure of the gas.
  • V is the volume of the gas.
  • n is the amount of substance of the gas (in moles).
  • R is the universal gas constant (8.314 J/(mol K)).
  • T is the temperature of the gas (in Kelvin).

Visual example

PV = nRT

Text example

When attempting to determine how much gas will be needed to inflate a balloon to a certain size at a specific temperature and pressure, the ideal gas law is used to facilitate the calculations.

Conclusion

Gas laws provide important insights into understanding the behavior and properties of gases in many scenarios. Whether examining microscopic changes or making macroscopic observations, these laws significantly advance our understanding of gaseous behaviors. By understanding the principles of Boyle's law, Charles' law, Avogadro's law, Gay-Lussac's law, combined gas law, and ideal gas law, students and scientists can predict and explain natural phenomena that occur in everyday life and industrial applications.


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Gas Laws

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