Grade 11
  1. Basic concepts of chemistry  1.1. Importance of Chemistry  1.2. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.3. laws of chemical combination  1.3.1. Law of conservation of mass  1.3.2. Law of definite proportions  1.3.3. Law of multiple proportions  1.3.4. Law of gaseous volume  1.3.5. Avogadro's Law  1.4. Dalton's atomic theory  1.5. Mole concept and molar mass  1.6. Percent composition  1.7. Empirical and molecular formula  1.8. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations  1.9. Limiting reagent concept
  2. Structure of the atom  2.1. Discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron  2.2. Atomic Model  2.2.1. Thomson's model  2.2.2. Rutherford's model  2.2.3. Bohr's model  2.3. Quantum mechanical model of the atom  2.4. Dual nature of matter and radiation  2.5. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle  2.6. Quantum numbers  2.7. Atomic orbitals and their shapes  2.8. Electronic configuration of elements  2.9. Aufbau principle  2.10. Pauli's exclusion principle  2.11. Hund's maximum multiplicity rule  2.12. de Broglie's hypothesis  2.13. Photoelectric effect
  3. Classification of elements and periodicity in properties  3.1. Historical development of the periodic table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table  3.3. Periodic trends in properties  3.3.1. Atomic and Ionic Radius  3.3.2. Ionization enthalpy  3.3.3. Electron gain enthalpy  3.3.4. Electronegativity  3.3.5. Valency  3.3.6. Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties  3.3.7. Oxidation states  3.4. Unusual Properties of the First Elements
  4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  4.1. Kossel–Lewis approach to chemical bonding  4.2. Ionic or electrovalent bond  4.3. Covalent bond and its features  4.4. Bond parameters  4.5. VSEPR Theory  4.6. Valence bond theory  4.7. Hybridization and its types  4.8. Molecular orbital theory  4.8.1. Bond order and stability  4.9. Hydrogen bonding
  5. States of matter  5.1. Intermolecular forces  5.2. Gas Laws  5.2.1. Boyle's law  5.2.2. Charles's Law  5.2.3. Avogadro's Law  5.2.4. Dalton's law of partial pressure  5.2.5. Graham's law of spread  5.3. Ideal Gas Equation and Applications  5.4. Real gases and deviations from ideal behaviour  5.5. Kinetic molecular theory of gases  5.6. Liquefaction of gases  5.7. Properties of Liquids  5.8. Surface tension and viscosity
  6. Thermodynamics  6.1. System and environment  6.2. Types of systems in thermodynamics  6.3. Types of procedures  6.4. First law of thermodynamics  6.5. Internal energy and enthalpy  6.6. Heat capacity and specific heat  6.7. Hess's law of constant heat summation  6.8. Bond dissociation enthalpy  6.9. Enthalpy of formation and combustion  6.10. Enthalpy of solution and neutralization  6.11. Spontaneity and the second law of thermodynamics  6.12. Gibbs free energy and its applications
  7. Balance  7.1. The concept of balance  7.2. Equilibrium constant and its applications  7.3. Le Chatelier's principle  7.4. Ionic equilibrium in solutions  7.5. Acid and Base Theory  7.5.1. Arrhenius concept  7.5.2. Bronsted-Lowry concept  7.5.3. Lewis concept  7.6. pH Scale and pOH  7.7. Common ion effect  7.8. Hydrolysis of salts  7.9. Buffer solutions and their mechanism of action  7.10. Solubility equilibrium of sparingly soluble salts
  8. Redox reactions  8.1. Oxidation and reduction concepts  8.2. Oxidation number and its applications  8.3. Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer  8.4. Balancing redox reactions (oxidation number and ion-electron methods)  8.5. Types of redox reactions  8.6. Electrochemical Cells and Redox Reactions
  9. Hydrogen  9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table  9.2. Isotopes of hydrogen  9.3. Preparation of Hydrogen  9.4. Properties of Hydrogen  9.5. Hydrides and their classification  9.6. Water and heavy water  9.7. Hydrogen peroxide and its properties  9.8. Uses of Hydrogen and Its Compounds
  10. S-block elements (alkali and alkaline earth metals)  10.1. Group 1 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.2. Group 2 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.3. Unusual properties of lithium and beryllium  10.4. Important compounds of sodium and their uses  10.5. Important Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium
  11. Some p-block elements  11.1. General Introduction to p-Block Elements  11.2. Group 13 Elements  11.2.1. Boron and its compounds  11.3. Group 14 Elements  11.3.1. Carbon and its allotropes  11.3.2. Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
  12. Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques  12.1. Classification and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds  12.2. Structural representation of organic compounds  12.3. Classification of organic reactions  12.4. Electronic Effects in Organic Chemistry  12.4.1. Inductive effect  12.4.2. Resonance effect  12.4.3. Hyperconjugation  12.5. Reaction mechanism and intermediate species  12.6. Purification and qualitative analysis of organic compounds
  13. Hydrocarbons  13.1. Hydrocarbons  13.1.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2. alkene  13.2.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  13.3. Alkynes  13.3.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkynes  13.4. Aromatic hydrocarbons  13.4.1. Structure and properties of benzene  13.4.2. Electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene
  14. Environmental Chemistry  14.1. Environmental Pollution  14.2. Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect  14.3. Water pollution and treatment methods  14.4. Soil pollution and its effects  14.5. Industrial waste and its treatment  14.6. Strategies for pollution control

Grade 11 → Thermodynamics ↓


Types of systems in thermodynamics


Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that deals with heat and temperature, and their relation to energy, work, radiation, and the properties of matter. The principles of thermodynamics apply everywhere in our daily lives, from refrigeration and air conditioning systems to the engines in cars. To understand thermodynamics, one must first understand the different types of systems involved in the study. A system in thermodynamics refers to the part of the universe that is being studied, while everything outside the system is its surroundings.

Overview of thermodynamic systems

In thermodynamics, a system is defined by a certain quantity of matter or a region in space under observation. A system can be classified in three main ways based on the exchange of energy and mass between the system and its surroundings: isolated system, closed system, and open system.

Isolated system

An isolated system is one where neither mass nor energy is allowed to cross the boundary. It is completely insulated from its surroundings. Think of it as a completely sealed and insulated flask where no heat can flow out or in, and no matter can be added or removed. This system is an idealization, as no perfect isolated systems exist, but it is a useful model for understanding fundamental thermodynamics principles. 

      Example: A thermos bottle or an idealized solar system.
isolated system No heat or Matter Exchange

Closed system

A closed system is a type where the system can exchange energy (as heat or work), but not mass, with its surroundings. This means that the amount of material inside the system remains the same, but the system can get hotter or colder depending on external conditions. A common example of a closed system is a pot with a lid. Heat can be transferred in and out of the pot, but no steam escapes when the lid is secured. 

      Example: A pressure cooker during cooking.
Closed system heat exchange only

Open system

An open system is one where both energy and mass can be exchanged with the surroundings. It is the most common type of system found in nature. Most living organisms as well as many engineered systems are open systems. In an open system, matter can be transferred into or out of the system, and energy can be added or lost from the system. 

      Example: Boiling water in an uncovered pot.
open system Collective exchange heat exchange

System boundary and environment

The boundary of a thermodynamic system is important because it defines the boundaries of the system. The boundary can be real or imaginary and movable or fixed. The surroundings are everything that lies outside the boundary, and the interactions between the system and its surroundings are the basis of thermodynamics studies. Each type of system has its own unique boundary properties, which determine the direction of energy flow.

Examples in daily life

To better understand thermodynamic systems, let's look at some more real-life examples:

1. Refrigerator

A refrigerator is a great example of a closed system. The boundaries of a refrigerator allow heat to transfer out of the system, keeping the inside cool, but the mass inside (e.g. food, drinks) remains stationary unless it is manually added or removed.

2. Automobile engine

The engine of a car works as an open system. Fuel is added and burned, resulting in the production of heat energy that moves the car. The engine accepts the input of air and fuel, and it emits heat and exhaust gases.

3. Thermos Flask

A thermos flask is designed to maintain the temperature of its contents over time, without any transfer of heat or matter, making it a perfect example of an isolated system, although not a perfect one, as some heat transfer may occur over an extended period of time.

Thermodynamic processes

Thermodynamics also studies the processes systems go through that involve changes in temperature, energy, and matter. These include:

Isothermal process

An isothermal process is one in which the temperature of the system remains constant. In such a process, if the system is in an open state, it can exchange mass with the environment, but the changes in temperature, pressure, volume correspond to the equation: 

      P1 * V1 = P2 * V2

Adiabatic process

Adiabatic processes occur without any heat exchange between the system and its surroundings. Such processes are important in closed systems and can be expressed as follows: 

      PV^𝛾 = constant

Conclusion

In summary, understanding the types of thermodynamic systems is paramount in the study of thermodynamics. Isolated, closed, and open systems each have their own unique characteristics and applications in the real world. Understanding the differences can help in understanding how systems interact with their environment, undergo changes, and perform work. Thermodynamics is not just a theoretical concept but a practical aspect of many industries and natural phenomena.


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Types of systems in thermodynamics

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