Grade 11
  1. Basic concepts of chemistry  1.1. Importance of Chemistry  1.2. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.3. laws of chemical combination  1.3.1. Law of conservation of mass  1.3.2. Law of definite proportions  1.3.3. Law of multiple proportions  1.3.4. Law of gaseous volume  1.3.5. Avogadro's Law  1.4. Dalton's atomic theory  1.5. Mole concept and molar mass  1.6. Percent composition  1.7. Empirical and molecular formula  1.8. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations  1.9. Limiting reagent concept
  2. Structure of the atom  2.1. Discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron  2.2. Atomic Model  2.2.1. Thomson's model  2.2.2. Rutherford's model  2.2.3. Bohr's model  2.3. Quantum mechanical model of the atom  2.4. Dual nature of matter and radiation  2.5. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle  2.6. Quantum numbers  2.7. Atomic orbitals and their shapes  2.8. Electronic configuration of elements  2.9. Aufbau principle  2.10. Pauli's exclusion principle  2.11. Hund's maximum multiplicity rule  2.12. de Broglie's hypothesis  2.13. Photoelectric effect
  3. Classification of elements and periodicity in properties  3.1. Historical development of the periodic table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table  3.3. Periodic trends in properties  3.3.1. Atomic and Ionic Radius  3.3.2. Ionization enthalpy  3.3.3. Electron gain enthalpy  3.3.4. Electronegativity  3.3.5. Valency  3.3.6. Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties  3.3.7. Oxidation states  3.4. Unusual Properties of the First Elements
  4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  4.1. Kossel–Lewis approach to chemical bonding  4.2. Ionic or electrovalent bond  4.3. Covalent bond and its features  4.4. Bond parameters  4.5. VSEPR Theory  4.6. Valence bond theory  4.7. Hybridization and its types  4.8. Molecular orbital theory  4.8.1. Bond order and stability  4.9. Hydrogen bonding
  5. States of matter  5.1. Intermolecular forces  5.2. Gas Laws  5.2.1. Boyle's law  5.2.2. Charles's Law  5.2.3. Avogadro's Law  5.2.4. Dalton's law of partial pressure  5.2.5. Graham's law of spread  5.3. Ideal Gas Equation and Applications  5.4. Real gases and deviations from ideal behaviour  5.5. Kinetic molecular theory of gases  5.6. Liquefaction of gases  5.7. Properties of Liquids  5.8. Surface tension and viscosity
  6. Thermodynamics  6.1. System and environment  6.2. Types of systems in thermodynamics  6.3. Types of procedures  6.4. First law of thermodynamics  6.5. Internal energy and enthalpy  6.6. Heat capacity and specific heat  6.7. Hess's law of constant heat summation  6.8. Bond dissociation enthalpy  6.9. Enthalpy of formation and combustion  6.10. Enthalpy of solution and neutralization  6.11. Spontaneity and the second law of thermodynamics  6.12. Gibbs free energy and its applications
  7. Balance  7.1. The concept of balance  7.2. Equilibrium constant and its applications  7.3. Le Chatelier's principle  7.4. Ionic equilibrium in solutions  7.5. Acid and Base Theory  7.5.1. Arrhenius concept  7.5.2. Bronsted-Lowry concept  7.5.3. Lewis concept  7.6. pH Scale and pOH  7.7. Common ion effect  7.8. Hydrolysis of salts  7.9. Buffer solutions and their mechanism of action  7.10. Solubility equilibrium of sparingly soluble salts
  8. Redox reactions  8.1. Oxidation and reduction concepts  8.2. Oxidation number and its applications  8.3. Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer  8.4. Balancing redox reactions (oxidation number and ion-electron methods)  8.5. Types of redox reactions  8.6. Electrochemical Cells and Redox Reactions
  9. Hydrogen  9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table  9.2. Isotopes of hydrogen  9.3. Preparation of Hydrogen  9.4. Properties of Hydrogen  9.5. Hydrides and their classification  9.6. Water and heavy water  9.7. Hydrogen peroxide and its properties  9.8. Uses of Hydrogen and Its Compounds
  10. S-block elements (alkali and alkaline earth metals)  10.1. Group 1 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.2. Group 2 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.3. Unusual properties of lithium and beryllium  10.4. Important compounds of sodium and their uses  10.5. Important Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium
  11. Some p-block elements  11.1. General Introduction to p-Block Elements  11.2. Group 13 Elements  11.2.1. Boron and its compounds  11.3. Group 14 Elements  11.3.1. Carbon and its allotropes  11.3.2. Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
  12. Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques  12.1. Classification and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds  12.2. Structural representation of organic compounds  12.3. Classification of organic reactions  12.4. Electronic Effects in Organic Chemistry  12.4.1. Inductive effect  12.4.2. Resonance effect  12.4.3. Hyperconjugation  12.5. Reaction mechanism and intermediate species  12.6. Purification and qualitative analysis of organic compounds
  13. Hydrocarbons  13.1. Hydrocarbons  13.1.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2. alkene  13.2.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  13.3. Alkynes  13.3.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkynes  13.4. Aromatic hydrocarbons  13.4.1. Structure and properties of benzene  13.4.2. Electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene
  14. Environmental Chemistry  14.1. Environmental Pollution  14.2. Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect  14.3. Water pollution and treatment methods  14.4. Soil pollution and its effects  14.5. Industrial waste and its treatment  14.6. Strategies for pollution control

Grade 11 → Some p-block elements ↓


Group 14 Elements


In the periodic table, the elements of group 14 are a fascinating group of elements that are known for their diversity and significant impact on chemistry and technology. This group is also known as the carbon family, because this group begins with carbon, a fundamental element for life on Earth. This group includes the following elements:

  • Carbon (C)
  • Silicon (Si)
  • Germanium (Ge)
  • Tin (Sn)
  • Lead (Pb)
  • Flerovium (Fl)

All of these elements are found in the p-block of the periodic table, and they exhibit a wide range of physical and chemical properties. Let's take a deeper look at the unique characteristics and uses of each element in this group.

Electronic configuration

Group 14 elements have four electrons in their outermost shell. The general electronic configuration for these elements can be represented as:

ns 2 np 2

Where 'n' represents the period number. For example, the electronic configuration of carbon is:

1s 2 2s 2 2p 2

As we move down the group from carbon to flerovium, electrons get added at higher energy levels, and the size of the atom increases.

Carbon (C)

Carbon is the best-known element in group 14 and is an essential component of all known life. It is a nonmetal and has an atomic number of 6. Carbon is able to form many more compounds than any other element, due to its unique ability to form four covalent bonds with other atoms.

Carbon has many allotropes, which are different structural forms of the same element, including:

  • Diamond: An extremely hard, crystalline form of carbon.
  • Graphite: A softer, more flexible form that is considered a good conductor of electricity.
  • Fullerene: A collection of carbon molecules with hollow shapes.

For example, diamond and graphite are both forms of carbon, but their structures are different. The carbon atoms in diamond are arranged in a tetrahedral lattice structure, which gives it its hard characteristic. In contrast, the carbon atoms in graphite form sheets of hexagonal arrays that can slide over one another, making it soft and slippery.

Silicon (Si)

Silicon is a metal with atomic number 14. It is the second most abundant element in the Earth's crust, found primarily as silicon dioxide (SiO 2), commonly known as sand. Silicon is important in electronics because it is used in the manufacture of semiconductors and integrated circuits.

Silicon's ability to conduct electricity makes it important in the technological world. Its band structure allows it to conduct electricity more efficiently after certain impurities are added, a process known as doping.

Germanium (Ge)

Germanium is another metal with atomic number 32. It is less abundant than silicon and is mainly used in electronics and fiber optics. Germanium is known for its semiconductor properties and is used in transistors and diodes.

Tin (Sn)

Tin is a metal with atomic number 50. It is commonly used in plating to prevent corrosion of other metals and to make alloys such as bronze and solder. Tin exhibits an interesting phenomenon known as "tin paste," where it changes from a metallic to a non-metallic form at low temperatures.

For example, bronze combines tin with copper (Cu) to form an alloy that is harder and more durable than pure copper. This ability to form alloys is one of the most important uses of tin.

Lead (Pb)

Lead is a heavy metal with atomic number 82 and is known for its high density and malleability. Historically, lead was widely used in paints and pipes, but due to its toxic effects on health, its use has decreased significantly. Lead is still used in batteries, radiation shielding, and some types of glass.

The chemical symbol for lead, Pb, comes from its Latin name 'plumbum.' Despite its toxicity, lead's high density makes it useful for absorbing harmful radiation in medical and nuclear applications.

Flerovium (Fl)

Flerovium is a synthetic element with atomic number 114. It is not found naturally and is produced in laboratories. Due to its instability and radioactivity, flerovium has no significant commercial applications, but it is valuable for scientific research in understanding the properties of superheavy elements.

Properties of Group 14 elements

Group 14 elements display a wide range of physical and chemical properties:

Physical properties

  • Melting point and boiling point: In general, the melting point and boiling point of these elements increase from carbon to tin, then decrease for lead.
  • Density: The density of elements increases as we go down a group.
  • Hardness: Carbon in the form of diamond is extremely hard, whereas lead is soft and malleable.

Chemical properties

  • Oxidation States: The elements of this group can show oxidation states ranging from +4 to -4. The stability of the +2 oxidation state increases from carbon to lead.
  • Reactivity: Reactivity varies widely across the group. Carbon is relatively less reactive, while lead is more reactive due to its metallic nature.

Uses of Group 14 elements

The diverse properties of the group 14 elements give rise to a wide variety of applications:

  • Carbon: Used in the creation of a huge range of compounds essential to organic chemistry, as well as in the creation of diamond and graphite for industrial applications.
  • Silicon: Important in electronics, used in solar panels, computer chips, and many household products such as glass and ceramics.
  • Germanium: Used as a semiconductor in fiber optics, infrared optics, and electronics.
  • Tin: It is commonly used for tin plating to protect other metals, making solder for electronics, and in alloys such as bronze.
  • Lead: Despite its toxicity it is used in radiation shielding, batteries and some special applications.

The elements of group 14 represent a fascinating range of elements that highlight the diversity of the periodic table. From the essential role of carbon in life to the technological importance of silicon and germanium, the elements of this group have far-reaching implications in both nature and industry.

Hopefully, this detailed overview will give you a clear understanding of the unique characteristics, properties and applications of the Group 14 elements, and enrich your understanding of their importance in the world around us.


Grade 11 → 11.3


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Boron and its compounds
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Group 14 Elements

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