Grade 11
  1. Basic concepts of chemistry  1.1. Importance of Chemistry  1.2. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.3. laws of chemical combination  1.3.1. Law of conservation of mass  1.3.2. Law of definite proportions  1.3.3. Law of multiple proportions  1.3.4. Law of gaseous volume  1.3.5. Avogadro's Law  1.4. Dalton's atomic theory  1.5. Mole concept and molar mass  1.6. Percent composition  1.7. Empirical and molecular formula  1.8. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations  1.9. Limiting reagent concept
  2. Structure of the atom  2.1. Discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron  2.2. Atomic Model  2.2.1. Thomson's model  2.2.2. Rutherford's model  2.2.3. Bohr's model  2.3. Quantum mechanical model of the atom  2.4. Dual nature of matter and radiation  2.5. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle  2.6. Quantum numbers  2.7. Atomic orbitals and their shapes  2.8. Electronic configuration of elements  2.9. Aufbau principle  2.10. Pauli's exclusion principle  2.11. Hund's maximum multiplicity rule  2.12. de Broglie's hypothesis  2.13. Photoelectric effect
  3. Classification of elements and periodicity in properties  3.1. Historical development of the periodic table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table  3.3. Periodic trends in properties  3.3.1. Atomic and Ionic Radius  3.3.2. Ionization enthalpy  3.3.3. Electron gain enthalpy  3.3.4. Electronegativity  3.3.5. Valency  3.3.6. Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties  3.3.7. Oxidation states  3.4. Unusual Properties of the First Elements
  4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  4.1. Kossel–Lewis approach to chemical bonding  4.2. Ionic or electrovalent bond  4.3. Covalent bond and its features  4.4. Bond parameters  4.5. VSEPR Theory  4.6. Valence bond theory  4.7. Hybridization and its types  4.8. Molecular orbital theory  4.8.1. Bond order and stability  4.9. Hydrogen bonding
  5. States of matter  5.1. Intermolecular forces  5.2. Gas Laws  5.2.1. Boyle's law  5.2.2. Charles's Law  5.2.3. Avogadro's Law  5.2.4. Dalton's law of partial pressure  5.2.5. Graham's law of spread  5.3. Ideal Gas Equation and Applications  5.4. Real gases and deviations from ideal behaviour  5.5. Kinetic molecular theory of gases  5.6. Liquefaction of gases  5.7. Properties of Liquids  5.8. Surface tension and viscosity
  6. Thermodynamics  6.1. System and environment  6.2. Types of systems in thermodynamics  6.3. Types of procedures  6.4. First law of thermodynamics  6.5. Internal energy and enthalpy  6.6. Heat capacity and specific heat  6.7. Hess's law of constant heat summation  6.8. Bond dissociation enthalpy  6.9. Enthalpy of formation and combustion  6.10. Enthalpy of solution and neutralization  6.11. Spontaneity and the second law of thermodynamics  6.12. Gibbs free energy and its applications
  7. Balance  7.1. The concept of balance  7.2. Equilibrium constant and its applications  7.3. Le Chatelier's principle  7.4. Ionic equilibrium in solutions  7.5. Acid and Base Theory  7.5.1. Arrhenius concept  7.5.2. Bronsted-Lowry concept  7.5.3. Lewis concept  7.6. pH Scale and pOH  7.7. Common ion effect  7.8. Hydrolysis of salts  7.9. Buffer solutions and their mechanism of action  7.10. Solubility equilibrium of sparingly soluble salts
  8. Redox reactions  8.1. Oxidation and reduction concepts  8.2. Oxidation number and its applications  8.3. Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer  8.4. Balancing redox reactions (oxidation number and ion-electron methods)  8.5. Types of redox reactions  8.6. Electrochemical Cells and Redox Reactions
  9. Hydrogen  9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table  9.2. Isotopes of hydrogen  9.3. Preparation of Hydrogen  9.4. Properties of Hydrogen  9.5. Hydrides and their classification  9.6. Water and heavy water  9.7. Hydrogen peroxide and its properties  9.8. Uses of Hydrogen and Its Compounds
  10. S-block elements (alkali and alkaline earth metals)  10.1. Group 1 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.2. Group 2 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.3. Unusual properties of lithium and beryllium  10.4. Important compounds of sodium and their uses  10.5. Important Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium
  11. Some p-block elements  11.1. General Introduction to p-Block Elements  11.2. Group 13 Elements  11.2.1. Boron and its compounds  11.3. Group 14 Elements  11.3.1. Carbon and its allotropes  11.3.2. Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
  12. Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques  12.1. Classification and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds  12.2. Structural representation of organic compounds  12.3. Classification of organic reactions  12.4. Electronic Effects in Organic Chemistry  12.4.1. Inductive effect  12.4.2. Resonance effect  12.4.3. Hyperconjugation  12.5. Reaction mechanism and intermediate species  12.6. Purification and qualitative analysis of organic compounds
  13. Hydrocarbons  13.1. Hydrocarbons  13.1.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2. alkene  13.2.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  13.3. Alkynes  13.3.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkynes  13.4. Aromatic hydrocarbons  13.4.1. Structure and properties of benzene  13.4.2. Electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene
  14. Environmental Chemistry  14.1. Environmental Pollution  14.2. Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect  14.3. Water pollution and treatment methods  14.4. Soil pollution and its effects  14.5. Industrial waste and its treatment  14.6. Strategies for pollution control

Grade 11 → Environmental Chemistry ↓


Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect


In our journey to understand the chemical nature of our environment, we come across two important concepts: atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect. These concepts are important because they directly affect the balance and health of our planet.

Understanding atmospheric pollution

Atmospheric pollution refers to the presence of substances in the air that are harmful to the health of humans, animals and plants. These substances may be in the form of gases, liquids or solids and can deteriorate the quality of air.

The main sources of atmospheric pollution are:

  • Industrial emissions
  • Vehicle exhaust
  • Burning of fossil fuels
  • Agricultural activities

Types of atmospheric pollutants

Atmospheric pollutants can be classified into two categories: primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.

Primary pollutants

Primary pollutants are emitted directly from a variety of sources. Examples include:

  • Carbon monoxide (CO): Produced by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing fuels. It is a colorless and odorless gas.
  • Sulfur dioxide (SO2): This is emitted from power plants and industrial facilities that burn coal and oil. It can cause respiratory problems.
  • Nitrogen oxides (NOx): Emitted during combustion processes in vehicles and industrial activities.
  • Particulate matter: Small solid or liquid particles suspended in the air. These can be dust, pollen, soot or smoke.

Secondary pollutants

These pollutants are not emitted directly but are formed in the atmosphere by reactions with primary pollutants. Examples include:

  • Ozone (O3): A secondary pollutant formed by the reaction of sunlight with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides. It is a major component of smog.

Effects of atmospheric pollution

Atmospheric pollution causes many health and environmental problems:

  • Respiratory and cardiovascular diseases in humans
  • Loss of ecosystem and biodiversity
  • Acid rain, which harms aquatic life and vegetation
  • Decreased visibility and impact on weather patterns

Visual example of atmospheric pollution

Representation of pollution particles in the atmosphere

The greenhouse effect

The greenhouse effect is a natural process in which certain gases in Earth's atmosphere trap heat, keeping the planet warm enough to sustain life. However, rising levels of these gases due to human activities have exacerbated the effect, leading to global warming.

Greenhouse gases

The major greenhouse gases include:

  • Carbon dioxide (CO2): Emitted from the burning of fossil fuels and deforestation.
  • Methane (CH4): Emitted from livestock and agriculture (especially rice cultivation) as well as landfills.
  • Nitrous oxide (N2O): Produced by agricultural and industrial activities, and the combustion of organic matter and fossil fuels.
  • Water vapor (H2O): This is the most abundant greenhouse gas; its quantity increases as the Earth warms, but its direct emissions are mostly natural.

How does the greenhouse effect work?

The greenhouse effect works as follows:

  1. Sunlight reaches the Earth's atmosphere. Some part of this sunlight gets reflected back into space.
  2. The remaining sunlight reaches the Earth's surface and is absorbed.
  3. This absorbed energy is again emitted back into the atmosphere in the form of infrared radiation (heat).
  4. Some of this emitted infrared radiation is trapped by greenhouse gases, causing the Earth's surface to warm.

Visual example of the greenhouse effect

Sunlight Infrared radiation Earth

Impact of enhanced greenhouse effect

The enhanced greenhouse effect caused by excess emissions of greenhouse gases from human activities is causing significant changes in the climate, resulting in:

  • Global temperature rise
  • Melting ice caps and glaciers
  • Rising sea levels
  • More extreme weather events, such as storms and droughts
  • Change in rainfall pattern
  • Disruption of natural habitats and loss of biodiversity

Text example of enhanced greenhouse effect

Let's consider the equation for photosynthesis, which plants perform to convert sunlight, CO2, and water into glucose and oxygen:

 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + sunlight → C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2

This natural process reduces CO2 in the atmosphere. However, when deforestation occurs, not only is less CO2 absorbed from the atmosphere, but additional CO2 is released from the decaying trees, increasing the greenhouse effect.

Reducing atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect

Solutions to tackle atmospheric pollution and reduce the greenhouse effect must focus on both reducing emissions and enhancing natural processes.

Reducing atmospheric pollution

  1. Enforcing stricter emission regulations for industries and vehicles
  2. Adoption of clean technologies and alternative energy sources like solar and wind
  3. Increasing public transport and reducing dependence on private vehicles
  4. Recycling and waste management to prevent open burning

Dealing with the increased greenhouse effect

  1. Transition to renewable energy sources
  2. Increasing energy efficiency in transport, buildings and industries
  3. Promoting reforestation and afforestation activities
  4. Promoting sustainable agricultural practices
  5. Scaling up carbon capture and storage technologies
  6. International agreements and policies aimed at reducing CO2 emissions, such as the Paris Agreement

Conclusion

Understanding atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect is important because these phenomena have far-reaching effects on the health of ecosystems and human society. Through concerted efforts at the local, national, and global levels, it is possible to mitigate these issues and promote a healthier, more sustainable environment for future generations.


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Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect

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