Grade 11
  1. Basic concepts of chemistry  1.1. Importance of Chemistry  1.2. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.3. laws of chemical combination  1.3.1. Law of conservation of mass  1.3.2. Law of definite proportions  1.3.3. Law of multiple proportions  1.3.4. Law of gaseous volume  1.3.5. Avogadro's Law  1.4. Dalton's atomic theory  1.5. Mole concept and molar mass  1.6. Percent composition  1.7. Empirical and molecular formula  1.8. Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations  1.9. Limiting reagent concept
  2. Structure of the atom  2.1. Discovery of the electron, proton, and neutron  2.2. Atomic Model  2.2.1. Thomson's model  2.2.2. Rutherford's model  2.2.3. Bohr's model  2.3. Quantum mechanical model of the atom  2.4. Dual nature of matter and radiation  2.5. Heisenberg's uncertainty principle  2.6. Quantum numbers  2.7. Atomic orbitals and their shapes  2.8. Electronic configuration of elements  2.9. Aufbau principle  2.10. Pauli's exclusion principle  2.11. Hund's maximum multiplicity rule  2.12. de Broglie's hypothesis  2.13. Photoelectric effect
  3. Classification of elements and periodicity in properties  3.1. Historical development of the periodic table  3.2. Modern Periodic Law and Periodic Table  3.3. Periodic trends in properties  3.3.1. Atomic and Ionic Radius  3.3.2. Ionization enthalpy  3.3.3. Electron gain enthalpy  3.3.4. Electronegativity  3.3.5. Valency  3.3.6. Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties  3.3.7. Oxidation states  3.4. Unusual Properties of the First Elements
  4. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  4.1. Kossel–Lewis approach to chemical bonding  4.2. Ionic or electrovalent bond  4.3. Covalent bond and its features  4.4. Bond parameters  4.5. VSEPR Theory  4.6. Valence bond theory  4.7. Hybridization and its types  4.8. Molecular orbital theory  4.8.1. Bond order and stability  4.9. Hydrogen bonding
  5. States of matter  5.1. Intermolecular forces  5.2. Gas Laws  5.2.1. Boyle's law  5.2.2. Charles's Law  5.2.3. Avogadro's Law  5.2.4. Dalton's law of partial pressure  5.2.5. Graham's law of spread  5.3. Ideal Gas Equation and Applications  5.4. Real gases and deviations from ideal behaviour  5.5. Kinetic molecular theory of gases  5.6. Liquefaction of gases  5.7. Properties of Liquids  5.8. Surface tension and viscosity
  6. Thermodynamics  6.1. System and environment  6.2. Types of systems in thermodynamics  6.3. Types of procedures  6.4. First law of thermodynamics  6.5. Internal energy and enthalpy  6.6. Heat capacity and specific heat  6.7. Hess's law of constant heat summation  6.8. Bond dissociation enthalpy  6.9. Enthalpy of formation and combustion  6.10. Enthalpy of solution and neutralization  6.11. Spontaneity and the second law of thermodynamics  6.12. Gibbs free energy and its applications
  7. Balance  7.1. The concept of balance  7.2. Equilibrium constant and its applications  7.3. Le Chatelier's principle  7.4. Ionic equilibrium in solutions  7.5. Acid and Base Theory  7.5.1. Arrhenius concept  7.5.2. Bronsted-Lowry concept  7.5.3. Lewis concept  7.6. pH Scale and pOH  7.7. Common ion effect  7.8. Hydrolysis of salts  7.9. Buffer solutions and their mechanism of action  7.10. Solubility equilibrium of sparingly soluble salts
  8. Redox reactions  8.1. Oxidation and reduction concepts  8.2. Oxidation number and its applications  8.3. Redox reactions in terms of electron transfer  8.4. Balancing redox reactions (oxidation number and ion-electron methods)  8.5. Types of redox reactions  8.6. Electrochemical Cells and Redox Reactions
  9. Hydrogen  9.1. Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table  9.2. Isotopes of hydrogen  9.3. Preparation of Hydrogen  9.4. Properties of Hydrogen  9.5. Hydrides and their classification  9.6. Water and heavy water  9.7. Hydrogen peroxide and its properties  9.8. Uses of Hydrogen and Its Compounds
  10. S-block elements (alkali and alkaline earth metals)  10.1. Group 1 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.2. Group 2 Elements - Properties and Trends  10.3. Unusual properties of lithium and beryllium  10.4. Important compounds of sodium and their uses  10.5. Important Compounds of Magnesium and Calcium
  11. Some p-block elements  11.1. General Introduction to p-Block Elements  11.2. Group 13 Elements  11.2.1. Boron and its compounds  11.3. Group 14 Elements  11.3.1. Carbon and its allotropes  11.3.2. Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon
  12. Organic Chemistry - Some Basic Principles and Techniques  12.1. Classification and Nomenclature of Organic Compounds  12.2. Structural representation of organic compounds  12.3. Classification of organic reactions  12.4. Electronic Effects in Organic Chemistry  12.4.1. Inductive effect  12.4.2. Resonance effect  12.4.3. Hyperconjugation  12.5. Reaction mechanism and intermediate species  12.6. Purification and qualitative analysis of organic compounds
  13. Hydrocarbons  13.1. Hydrocarbons  13.1.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2. alkene  13.2.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkenes  13.2.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  13.3. Alkynes  13.3.1. Preparation and Properties of Alkynes  13.4. Aromatic hydrocarbons  13.4.1. Structure and properties of benzene  13.4.2. Electrophilic substitution reactions of benzene
  14. Environmental Chemistry  14.1. Environmental Pollution  14.2. Atmospheric pollution and the greenhouse effect  14.3. Water pollution and treatment methods  14.4. Soil pollution and its effects  14.5. Industrial waste and its treatment  14.6. Strategies for pollution control

Grade 11 → Hydrogen ↓


Water and heavy water


As we know, water is one of the most important substances on Earth and vital for life. It is a simple compound made up of hydrogen and oxygen, chemically represented as H2O. This means that each water molecule contains two hydrogen atoms covalently bonded to one oxygen atom. These molecules have a curved shape, which is important for water's unique properties.

Composition of water

A water molecule consists of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. A water molecule can be visualized like this:

Hey H H

The oxygen atom is more electronegative than the hydrogen atom, which means it attracts the shared electrons more strongly. This results in oxygen having a partial negative charge and hydrogen having a partial positive charge, making water a polar molecule.

Properties of water

Because of its polarity and hydrogen bonding, water has several unique properties:

  • Cohesion and adhesion: Water molecules stick to each other (cohesion) and stick to other surfaces (adhesion).
  • High specific heat: Water can absorb a lot of heat before it becomes too hot, which is why it is a good temperature buffer.
  • Surface tension: The cohesive forces between water molecules are responsible for its high surface tension.
  • Solvent properties: Water is known as the "universal solvent" because it dissolves more substances than any other liquid.

What is heavy water?

Heavy water is chemically the same as normal water, but there is one key difference. The hydrogen atoms in heavy water are replaced with deuterium, an isotope of hydrogen. Deuterium has a neutron in its nucleus along with a proton, giving it a higher atomic weight than normal hydrogen.

Chemical formula of heavy water

The chemical formula for heavy water is D2O where "D" stands for deuterium. The heavy water molecule looks like this:

Hey D D

Deuterium oxide (D2O) is used as a neutron moderator and coolant in nuclear reactors because it slows down the speed of neutrons enough to keep the chain reaction going.

Properties of heavy water

Although chemically identical to ordinary water, heavy water exhibits somewhat different physical properties:

  • Higher density: Heavy water is about 11% denser than normal water, making it physically detectable.
  • Different boiling and freezing points: Heavy water has higher boiling point (101.4°C) and freezing point (3.8°C) than normal water.

Comparison between water and heavy water

The following table shows some of the primary differences between normal water and heavy water:

Property Normal water (H2O) Heavy water (D2O)
Composition Covalent bond between hydrogen and oxygen atoms Covalent bond between deuterium and oxygen atoms
Molecular weight Lighter (18 atomic mass units) Heavy (20 atomic mass units)
Boiling point 100 °C (212 °F) 101.4 °C (214.5 °F)
Freezing point 0 °C (32 °F) 3.8 °C (38.8 °F)
Density 1 g/cm3 1.11 g/cm3

Uses of heavy water

Heavy water is used primarily in nuclear reactors. The presence of deuterium oxide is important in certain types of reactors called "heavy water reactors." International production of heavy water is vital to nuclear technology. Let's look at some typical uses:

  • Neutron moderator: Heavy water slows down neutrons so that they can effectively fission uranium-235 or plutonium-239 in reactors.
  • Isotope effect studies: Since deuterium is an isotope of hydrogen, it can be used to study reaction mechanisms in chemistry through isotope effect analysis.

How to separate heavy water from normal water?

Though both look almost the same, there are a few ways to differentiate heavy water from normal water:

  • Mass spectrometry: Analyzing the mass of atoms or molecules to identify isotopic composition.
  • Density measurement: The increased density of heavy water can be used to distinguish it from normal water in the laboratory.
  • Freezing and boiling points: Record the freezing and boiling points; heavy water freezes more quickly and boils more quickly than normal water.

Environmental presence of heavy water

Heavy water is naturally found in very small quantities in ordinary water. Its concentration is approximately 1 part in 3200 liquid water. There are no significant environmental or health effects associated with isotopic differences in small quantities, but large concentrations, as used in industrial processes, need to be carefully managed.

Conclusion

Water, in its various forms - normal and heavy - is a fundamental compound essential for life and modern technological processes. While both have similar chemical properties, differences in their physical properties, such as density and boiling point, provide unique opportunities for scientific exploration and industrial applications.


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Water and heavy water

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