Graduate
  1. Physical Chemistry  1.1. Thermodynamics  1.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.1.2. Enthalpy and heat capacity  1.1.3. Entropy and free energy  1.1.4. Phase Equilibrium  1.1.5. Statistical thermodynamics  1.1.6. Thermodynamic cycle  1.1.7. Fugacity and activity  1.2. Quantum Chemistry  1.2.1. Principles of quantum mechanics  1.2.2. Schrödinger Equation  1.2.3. Particle in a box  1.2.4. Operators and eigenvalues  1.2.5. Atomic orbitals  1.2.6. Molecular orbital theory  1.2.7. Perturbation theory  1.2.8. Valence bond theory  1.2.9. Hybridization and chemical bonding  1.3. Chemical kinetics  1.3.1. Rate laws and reaction mechanisms  1.3.2. Collision theory  1.3.3. Transition state theory  1.3.4. Enzyme Kinetics  1.3.5. Chain Reactions and Polymerization  1.3.6. Photochemical reactions  1.4. Statistical mechanics  1.4.1. Partitioning functions  1.4.2. Molecular distribution functions  1.4.3. Boltzmann Distribution  1.4.4. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  1.5. Spectroscopy  1.5.1. Rotational Spectroscopy  1.5.2. Vibrational Spectroscopy  1.5.3. Electronic Spectroscopy  1.5.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.5.5. Mass Spectrometry  1.5.6. Raman Spectroscopy  1.5.7. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.6. Surface and colloidal chemistry  1.6.1. Absorption isotherm  1.6.2. Surface tension and wetting  1.6.3. Colloidal Stability  1.6.4. Catalysis  1.6.5. Emulsions and micelles  1.7. Electrochemistry  1.7.1. Nernst equation  1.7.2. Electrochemical cells  1.7.3. Conductivity and mobility  1.7.4. War  1.7.5. Fuel cells  1.7.6. Electrolysis
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic reactions  2.2. Spectroscopy and structural determination  2.2.1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy  2.2.2. IR Spectroscopy  2.2.3. NMR Spectroscopy  2.2.4. Mass Spectrometry  2.2.5. X-ray crystallography  2.3. Stereoscopic  2.3.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.3.2. Structural analysis  2.3.3. Geometrical isomerism  2.3.4. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.4. Organometallic Chemistry  2.4.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.4.2. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions  2.4.3. Transition Metal Complexes  2.4.4. Metal–carbon bond  2.5. Polymer chemistry  2.5.1. Polymerization mechanism  2.5.2. Polymer Characteristics  2.5.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.5.4. Conducting polymer  2.5.5. Supramolecular polymers  2.6. Medicinal chemistry  2.6.1. Drug design and development  2.6.2. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics  2.6.3. Structure-activity relationships  2.6.4. Molecular docking and drug screening
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Crystal field theory  3.1.2. Ligand field theory  3.1.3. Spectrochemical Series  3.1.4. Chelation and stability  3.2. Organometallic Chemistry  3.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  3.2.2. Catalysis by organometallic complexes  3.2.3. Metallocenes  3.3. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.3.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  3.3.2. The role of metals in biological systems  3.3.3. Metal ion transport and storage  3.4. Solid state chemistry  3.4.1. Crystal Structures  3.4.2. Band theory of solids  3.4.3. Superconductors  3.4.4. Defects in the crystal  3.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.5.1. Electronic configuration in lanthanides and actinides  3.5.2. Coordination chemistry of the lanthanides  3.5.3. Magnetic Properties of Lanthanides
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.2. Spectroscopic Techniques  4.2.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.2.2. X-ray diffraction  4.2.3. Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy  4.3. Electroanalytical methods  4.3.1. Potentiometry  4.3.2. Voltammetry  4.3.3. Colometry  4.4. Mass Spectrometry  4.4.1. Ionization Technique  4.4.2. Fragmentation Pattern  4.5. Chemometrics  4.5.1. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.5.2. Machine Learning in Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.1.1. Force fields and energy minimization  5.1.2. Monte Carlo simulation in molecular dynamics simulations  5.2. Quantum chemical methods  5.2.1. Hartree–Fock theory  5.2.2. Density functional theory  5.2.3. Semi-empirical methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.3.1. Molecular Docking  5.3.2. QSAR Modeling  5.3.3. Virtual Screening
  6. Biochemistry  6.1. Enzyme Kinetics  6.1.1. Michaelis-Menten kinetics  6.1.2. Inhibition mechanism  6.2. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  6.2.1. Glycolysis  6.2.2. Citric acid cycle  6.2.3. Electron transport chain  6.3. molecular Biology  6.3.1. DNA replication and repair  6.3.2. Protein synthesis  6.3.3. Gene Regulation  6.4. Structural Biochemistry  6.4.1. Protein Folding  6.4.2. Membrane Biophysics
  7. Environmental Chemistry  7.1. Atmospheric Chemistry  7.1.1. Greenhouse gases  7.1.2. Ozone depletion  7.1.3. Air pollutants and smoke  7.2. Water Chemistry  7.2.1. pH and water hardness  7.2.2. Wastewater treatment  7.2.3. Aquatic Chemistry  7.3. Soil Chemistry  7.3.1. Heavy metal contamination  7.3.2. Soil pH and Buffering  7.3.3. Nutrient cycling  7.4. Toxicology and Chemical Safety  7.4.1. Toxicokinetics  7.4.2. Risk Assessment in Toxicology and Chemical Safety in Environmental Chemistry  7.4.3. Effects of pollutants on the environment

Graduate ↓


Environmental Chemistry


Environmental chemistry is a branch of chemistry that focuses on the chemical processes that occur in the environment. It involves understanding how chemicals move and affect the components of the Earth, including air, water, soil, and the living organisms they support. This study is important because it helps us understand pollution, its effects on natural ecosystems, and strategies for remediation.

Basic concepts

The fundamentals of environmental chemistry are based on several key concepts:

  • Biogeochemical cycles: These are natural cycles that circulate essential elements and compounds through an ecosystem. Examples are the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the water cycle.
  • Atmospheric chemistry: This involves the study of the chemical composition of the Earth's atmosphere and the reactions that occur within it.
  • Aquatic Chemistry: This focuses on the chemical processes in water bodies, considering the interactions between different chemical substances and aquatic life.
  • Soil Chemistry: This involves the study of chemical interactions in soil and how they affect plant growth, soil fertility, and the environment.

Visual example of a biogeochemical cycle

ocean Clouds land Rain

Air pollution and atmospheric chemistry

Air pollution is an important aspect of environmental chemistry. It involves the emission of harmful substances into the atmosphere due to natural or anthropogenic activities. Common air pollutants include:

  • Carbon dioxide (CO2): Produced by the burning of fossil fuels and is an important greenhouse gas.
  • Sulfur dioxide (SO2): Emitted by power plants and causes acid rain.
  • Nitrogen oxides (NOx): These are emitted by automobiles and cause smog.
  • Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): These can cause ozone and smog formation at ground level.

Understanding the chemistry behind these pollutants is important for developing ways to reduce emissions and minimise their impact. For example:

SO 2 + H 2 O → H 2 SO 3
2NO3 + O2 → 2NO3
NO2 + hv (sunlight) → NO + O
O + O2 → O3 (ozone formation)

Aquatic chemistry

Water quality is an important environmental concern that affects both human health and ecosystem integrity. Aquatic chemistry examines the chemical characteristics of natural water bodies such as rivers, lakes, and oceans. Key parameters to consider include:

  • pH level: Indicates the acidity or alkalinity of water. Normal water has a neutral pH level of around 7.
  • Dissolved oxygen: Essential for aquatic life. Low levels indicate pollution.
  • Hardness: Determined by the calcium and magnesium ions in water. High hardness can affect industrial processes.
  • Nutrient concentration: High nutrient levels from agricultural runoff can cause eutrophication.

For example, chemical reactions that occur in water can affect the form and toxicity of pollutants. One such reaction involves ammonia and oxygen:

NH3 + O2 → NO2- + 3H+ + 2e-

Soil chemistry

Soil is an essential component of the environment, and soil chemistry plays a vital role in determining its health and productivity. Soil chemistry involves the analysis of soil structure, nutrients, and contaminants. The main areas of interest are the following:

  • pH: Soil pH affects the availability of nutrients to plants. Most plants prefer a slightly acidic to neutral pH (6-7).
  • Organic matter: Organic matter is important for soil fertility and structure.
  • Cation exchange capacity (CEC): It affects the soil's ability to retain and release nutrients.
  • Pollutants: Pesticides and heavy metals can accumulate in the soil, affecting its quality and causing bioaccumulation.

An example of soil chemistry activity is ion exchange in clay minerals:

K-soil + NH4+ ⇌ NH4- soil + K+

Green chemistry

Green chemistry is a field of environmental chemistry that focuses on designing products and processes that minimize the impact they have on the environment. This concept is essential in finding sustainable solutions for chemical manufacturing, use, and disposal. Principles of green chemistry include:

  • Prevention: Avoid waste generation rather than treating it after it has been generated.
  • Atom economy: Designing processes to maximize the inclusion of all materials used in the final product.
  • Less hazardous chemical synthesis: Designing safer chemicals and processes.
  • Use of renewable feedstocks: Prefer renewable raw materials over exhaustable ones.
  • Design for decomposition: Ensure that products decompose into non-harmful substances at the end of their life.

A green chemistry challenge and practice might involve an efficient reaction such as:

2Fe2S3 + 9O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 6SO2

Conclusion

Environmental chemistry plays a vital role in understanding and solving modern ecological challenges. By learning more about the interactions of chemicals with air, water, soil, and living organisms, we can better prepare ourselves to develop solutions to environmental problems. Green chemistry offers a promising path to designing processes and products that are environmentally friendly. As we move into the future, the integration of sustainable practices into chemical processes will become a necessity to protect and enhance our natural world for generations to come.


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Environmental Chemistry

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