Graduate
  1. Physical Chemistry  1.1. Thermodynamics  1.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.1.2. Enthalpy and heat capacity  1.1.3. Entropy and free energy  1.1.4. Phase Equilibrium  1.1.5. Statistical thermodynamics  1.1.6. Thermodynamic cycle  1.1.7. Fugacity and activity  1.2. Quantum Chemistry  1.2.1. Principles of quantum mechanics  1.2.2. Schrödinger Equation  1.2.3. Particle in a box  1.2.4. Operators and eigenvalues  1.2.5. Atomic orbitals  1.2.6. Molecular orbital theory  1.2.7. Perturbation theory  1.2.8. Valence bond theory  1.2.9. Hybridization and chemical bonding  1.3. Chemical kinetics  1.3.1. Rate laws and reaction mechanisms  1.3.2. Collision theory  1.3.3. Transition state theory  1.3.4. Enzyme Kinetics  1.3.5. Chain Reactions and Polymerization  1.3.6. Photochemical reactions  1.4. Statistical mechanics  1.4.1. Partitioning functions  1.4.2. Molecular distribution functions  1.4.3. Boltzmann Distribution  1.4.4. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  1.5. Spectroscopy  1.5.1. Rotational Spectroscopy  1.5.2. Vibrational Spectroscopy  1.5.3. Electronic Spectroscopy  1.5.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.5.5. Mass Spectrometry  1.5.6. Raman Spectroscopy  1.5.7. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.6. Surface and colloidal chemistry  1.6.1. Absorption isotherm  1.6.2. Surface tension and wetting  1.6.3. Colloidal Stability  1.6.4. Catalysis  1.6.5. Emulsions and micelles  1.7. Electrochemistry  1.7.1. Nernst equation  1.7.2. Electrochemical cells  1.7.3. Conductivity and mobility  1.7.4. War  1.7.5. Fuel cells  1.7.6. Electrolysis
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic reactions  2.2. Spectroscopy and structural determination  2.2.1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy  2.2.2. IR Spectroscopy  2.2.3. NMR Spectroscopy  2.2.4. Mass Spectrometry  2.2.5. X-ray crystallography  2.3. Stereoscopic  2.3.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.3.2. Structural analysis  2.3.3. Geometrical isomerism  2.3.4. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.4. Organometallic Chemistry  2.4.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.4.2. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions  2.4.3. Transition Metal Complexes  2.4.4. Metal–carbon bond  2.5. Polymer chemistry  2.5.1. Polymerization mechanism  2.5.2. Polymer Characteristics  2.5.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.5.4. Conducting polymer  2.5.5. Supramolecular polymers  2.6. Medicinal chemistry  2.6.1. Drug design and development  2.6.2. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics  2.6.3. Structure-activity relationships  2.6.4. Molecular docking and drug screening
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Crystal field theory  3.1.2. Ligand field theory  3.1.3. Spectrochemical Series  3.1.4. Chelation and stability  3.2. Organometallic Chemistry  3.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  3.2.2. Catalysis by organometallic complexes  3.2.3. Metallocenes  3.3. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.3.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  3.3.2. The role of metals in biological systems  3.3.3. Metal ion transport and storage  3.4. Solid state chemistry  3.4.1. Crystal Structures  3.4.2. Band theory of solids  3.4.3. Superconductors  3.4.4. Defects in the crystal  3.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.5.1. Electronic configuration in lanthanides and actinides  3.5.2. Coordination chemistry of the lanthanides  3.5.3. Magnetic Properties of Lanthanides
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.2. Spectroscopic Techniques  4.2.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.2.2. X-ray diffraction  4.2.3. Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy  4.3. Electroanalytical methods  4.3.1. Potentiometry  4.3.2. Voltammetry  4.3.3. Colometry  4.4. Mass Spectrometry  4.4.1. Ionization Technique  4.4.2. Fragmentation Pattern  4.5. Chemometrics  4.5.1. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.5.2. Machine Learning in Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.1.1. Force fields and energy minimization  5.1.2. Monte Carlo simulation in molecular dynamics simulations  5.2. Quantum chemical methods  5.2.1. Hartree–Fock theory  5.2.2. Density functional theory  5.2.3. Semi-empirical methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.3.1. Molecular Docking  5.3.2. QSAR Modeling  5.3.3. Virtual Screening
  6. Biochemistry  6.1. Enzyme Kinetics  6.1.1. Michaelis-Menten kinetics  6.1.2. Inhibition mechanism  6.2. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  6.2.1. Glycolysis  6.2.2. Citric acid cycle  6.2.3. Electron transport chain  6.3. molecular Biology  6.3.1. DNA replication and repair  6.3.2. Protein synthesis  6.3.3. Gene Regulation  6.4. Structural Biochemistry  6.4.1. Protein Folding  6.4.2. Membrane Biophysics
  7. Environmental Chemistry  7.1. Atmospheric Chemistry  7.1.1. Greenhouse gases  7.1.2. Ozone depletion  7.1.3. Air pollutants and smoke  7.2. Water Chemistry  7.2.1. pH and water hardness  7.2.2. Wastewater treatment  7.2.3. Aquatic Chemistry  7.3. Soil Chemistry  7.3.1. Heavy metal contamination  7.3.2. Soil pH and Buffering  7.3.3. Nutrient cycling  7.4. Toxicology and Chemical Safety  7.4.1. Toxicokinetics  7.4.2. Risk Assessment in Toxicology and Chemical Safety in Environmental Chemistry  7.4.3. Effects of pollutants on the environment

Graduate → Organic chemistry → Organometallic Chemistry ↓


Metal–carbon bond


Organometallic chemistry is a broad and exciting branch of chemistry that involves compounds containing bonds between metal and carbon atoms. These compounds are important in a variety of processes, including catalysis and materials science. Let's take a deeper look at what metal-carbon bonds are, their nature, their importance, and how they are used in various applications. This detailed exploration will cover the development of metal-carbon bonds, their characteristics, reactions, and significance.

Introduction to metal-carbon bonds

In chemistry, a metal–carbon bond specifically refers to the bonding of a carbon atom to a metal atom in a molecule. These are an essential class of bonds in the field of organometallic chemistry. Organometallic compounds typically contain at least one metal–carbon (MC) bond, where the metal is typically a transition metal.

R–M

In the above formula, R represents an organic group (such as alkyl or aryl), while M represents a metal atom. Chemical species containing metal-carbon bonds exhibit unique properties due to the interaction between the d-orbitals of the metal and the p-orbitals of carbon, forming bonds that have varying degrees of covalent and ionic character.

Types of metal-carbon bonds

Metal-carbon bonds can vary considerably in their type and strength depending on the metals and carbon groups. Here are some types:

1. Sigma (σ) bond

The sigma bond between metal and carbon is characterized by the direct overlap of orbitals. This type of bond is highly directional and usually forms the basis of typical metal-carbon bonds. For example, in methyllithium (CH3Li), carbon forms a sigma bond with lithium.

2. Pi (π) bond

Pi bonds involve the overlap of the pi orbitals of carbon with the d-orbitals of the metal. These are common in complexes where metals bond to alkane or aromatic rings. A classic example is π allyl complex, where the allyl group is bound to the metal primarily via pi bonds.

3. Multiple bonds

Metals can also form multiple bonds with carbon atoms, such as in metal carbenes and metal carbonyls. These compounds have bonds that are best described using resonance structures to show the interactions between metal d-orbitals and carbon p or sp orbitals.

Properties of metal–carbon bonds

The behavior and properties of metal-carbon bonds depend on many factors, including the nature of the metal and the characteristics of the carbon-containing ligands. Key properties include:

Bonding strength

The strength of a metal-carbon bond can vary considerably. For example, the ionic character of the bond plays a role in determining its strength. Ionic types of bonds tend to be weaker than covalent ones, as seen with Group 1 metals such as lithium.

Electronic configuration

The nature of the metal-carbon bond is affected by the electronic configuration of the metal. Transition metals with partially filled d-orbitals can engage in back-donation, where electrons from the filled d-orbital of the metal are donated to the empty p-orbital of carbon, increasing the strength and stability of the bond.

Stability

The stability of a metal-carbon bond also depends on the number of electrons and the oxidation state of the metal. Metals in lower oxidation states form stronger bonds due to favorable electron-donor-acceptor interactions. The principle of the 18-electron rule is often used as a stability guide in which the metal aims to achieve a noble gas electron configuration.

Reactions involving metal–carbon bonds

Metal–carbon bonds participate in numerous chemical reactions, playing an important role in organometallic chemistry. Major reactions include:

Insertion reactions

Insertion reactions involve the insertion of a substrate such as carbon monoxide or an olefin into a metal-carbon bond. This is common in processes such as hydroformylation, where an alkene reacts with carbon monoxide and hydrogen to form an aldehyde.

Oxidative additives

Oxidative addition is a process by which a compound increases its oxidation state by adding additional ligands. For example, a palladium catalyst can undergo oxidative addition with a carbon–halogen bond, forming a new carbon–metal bond and expanding its coordination number.

Reductive elimination

Reductive elimination is the reverse of oxidative addition. It describes the removal of a ligand set from a metal center, thereby lowering its oxidation state. This reaction is often important in forming new carbon-carbon or carbon-hydrogen bonds.

Applications of metal–carbon bonds

Because of their unique properties, metal–carbon bonded compounds are important in many scientific and industrial applications:

Catalysis

Organometallic compounds are used extensively as catalysts. For example, Grubbs catalysts and Schwartz reagents are used in olefin metathesis and in many organic transformations.

Materials science

Organometallic polymers, where metal-carbon bonds are part of the polymer backbone, exhibit unique conductive and magnetic properties. These materials are important in the development of advanced electronic devices and coatings.

Pharmaceutical chemistry

In drug design, organometallic compounds offer unique mechanisms of action, some of which are used in cancer treatment and radiopharmaceuticals.

Visual example: metal-carbon bond

To better understand metal-carbon bonding consider this simplified model:

M C

In the above figure, M represents metal atom and C represents carbon atom, which are connected by a line that shows the metal-carbon bond.

Conclusion

Metal-carbon bonds form the foundation of organometallic chemistry, a field that has transformed modern chemical synthesis and advanced materials development. Understanding the nuances of these bonds, from their nature to their applications, is crucial to harnessing their potential in scientific research and industrial applications. The dynamic interaction between metal orbitals and carbon atoms opens up avenues for novel solutions and deeper insights into chemical bonding and reactivity.


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Metal–carbon bond

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