Graduate
  1. Physical Chemistry  1.1. Thermodynamics  1.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.1.2. Enthalpy and heat capacity  1.1.3. Entropy and free energy  1.1.4. Phase Equilibrium  1.1.5. Statistical thermodynamics  1.1.6. Thermodynamic cycle  1.1.7. Fugacity and activity  1.2. Quantum Chemistry  1.2.1. Principles of quantum mechanics  1.2.2. Schrödinger Equation  1.2.3. Particle in a box  1.2.4. Operators and eigenvalues  1.2.5. Atomic orbitals  1.2.6. Molecular orbital theory  1.2.7. Perturbation theory  1.2.8. Valence bond theory  1.2.9. Hybridization and chemical bonding  1.3. Chemical kinetics  1.3.1. Rate laws and reaction mechanisms  1.3.2. Collision theory  1.3.3. Transition state theory  1.3.4. Enzyme Kinetics  1.3.5. Chain Reactions and Polymerization  1.3.6. Photochemical reactions  1.4. Statistical mechanics  1.4.1. Partitioning functions  1.4.2. Molecular distribution functions  1.4.3. Boltzmann Distribution  1.4.4. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  1.5. Spectroscopy  1.5.1. Rotational Spectroscopy  1.5.2. Vibrational Spectroscopy  1.5.3. Electronic Spectroscopy  1.5.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.5.5. Mass Spectrometry  1.5.6. Raman Spectroscopy  1.5.7. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.6. Surface and colloidal chemistry  1.6.1. Absorption isotherm  1.6.2. Surface tension and wetting  1.6.3. Colloidal Stability  1.6.4. Catalysis  1.6.5. Emulsions and micelles  1.7. Electrochemistry  1.7.1. Nernst equation  1.7.2. Electrochemical cells  1.7.3. Conductivity and mobility  1.7.4. War  1.7.5. Fuel cells  1.7.6. Electrolysis
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic reactions  2.2. Spectroscopy and structural determination  2.2.1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy  2.2.2. IR Spectroscopy  2.2.3. NMR Spectroscopy  2.2.4. Mass Spectrometry  2.2.5. X-ray crystallography  2.3. Stereoscopic  2.3.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.3.2. Structural analysis  2.3.3. Geometrical isomerism  2.3.4. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.4. Organometallic Chemistry  2.4.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.4.2. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions  2.4.3. Transition Metal Complexes  2.4.4. Metal–carbon bond  2.5. Polymer chemistry  2.5.1. Polymerization mechanism  2.5.2. Polymer Characteristics  2.5.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.5.4. Conducting polymer  2.5.5. Supramolecular polymers  2.6. Medicinal chemistry  2.6.1. Drug design and development  2.6.2. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics  2.6.3. Structure-activity relationships  2.6.4. Molecular docking and drug screening
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Crystal field theory  3.1.2. Ligand field theory  3.1.3. Spectrochemical Series  3.1.4. Chelation and stability  3.2. Organometallic Chemistry  3.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  3.2.2. Catalysis by organometallic complexes  3.2.3. Metallocenes  3.3. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.3.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  3.3.2. The role of metals in biological systems  3.3.3. Metal ion transport and storage  3.4. Solid state chemistry  3.4.1. Crystal Structures  3.4.2. Band theory of solids  3.4.3. Superconductors  3.4.4. Defects in the crystal  3.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.5.1. Electronic configuration in lanthanides and actinides  3.5.2. Coordination chemistry of the lanthanides  3.5.3. Magnetic Properties of Lanthanides
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.2. Spectroscopic Techniques  4.2.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.2.2. X-ray diffraction  4.2.3. Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy  4.3. Electroanalytical methods  4.3.1. Potentiometry  4.3.2. Voltammetry  4.3.3. Colometry  4.4. Mass Spectrometry  4.4.1. Ionization Technique  4.4.2. Fragmentation Pattern  4.5. Chemometrics  4.5.1. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.5.2. Machine Learning in Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.1.1. Force fields and energy minimization  5.1.2. Monte Carlo simulation in molecular dynamics simulations  5.2. Quantum chemical methods  5.2.1. Hartree–Fock theory  5.2.2. Density functional theory  5.2.3. Semi-empirical methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.3.1. Molecular Docking  5.3.2. QSAR Modeling  5.3.3. Virtual Screening
  6. Biochemistry  6.1. Enzyme Kinetics  6.1.1. Michaelis-Menten kinetics  6.1.2. Inhibition mechanism  6.2. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  6.2.1. Glycolysis  6.2.2. Citric acid cycle  6.2.3. Electron transport chain  6.3. molecular Biology  6.3.1. DNA replication and repair  6.3.2. Protein synthesis  6.3.3. Gene Regulation  6.4. Structural Biochemistry  6.4.1. Protein Folding  6.4.2. Membrane Biophysics
  7. Environmental Chemistry  7.1. Atmospheric Chemistry  7.1.1. Greenhouse gases  7.1.2. Ozone depletion  7.1.3. Air pollutants and smoke  7.2. Water Chemistry  7.2.1. pH and water hardness  7.2.2. Wastewater treatment  7.2.3. Aquatic Chemistry  7.3. Soil Chemistry  7.3.1. Heavy metal contamination  7.3.2. Soil pH and Buffering  7.3.3. Nutrient cycling  7.4. Toxicology and Chemical Safety  7.4.1. Toxicokinetics  7.4.2. Risk Assessment in Toxicology and Chemical Safety in Environmental Chemistry  7.4.3. Effects of pollutants on the environment

Graduate → Physical Chemistry ↓


Electrochemistry


Electrochemistry is a branch of physical chemistry that deals with the study of the relationship between electricity and chemical reactions. The field covers a wide range of phenomena and applications, from the functions of a simple battery or cell to complex industrial electrochemical processes. In this comprehensive explanation, we will delve deeply into the basic concepts, terms, and applications of electrochemistry, while keeping the language as simple and clear as possible.

Basic concepts

To understand electrochemistry, it is necessary to understand the fundamental concepts that govern this field. Primary concepts include oxidation-reduction reactions (redox reactions), electrodes, electrolytes, and cells.

1. Oxidation-reduction reactions

Oxidation-reduction (redox) reactions are chemical reactions that involve the transfer of electrons between two species. Here is a simple equation depicting a redox reaction:

Oxidation: Fe → Fe 2+ + 2e - Reduction: Cu 2+ + 2e - → Cu Overall Reaction: Fe + Cu 2+ → Fe 2+ + Cu

In this example, the iron (Fe) loses electrons and is oxidized, while the copper ions (Cu 2+) gain electrons and are reduced.

2. Electrode

Electrodes are conducting materials that allow electrons to enter or exit the system. The types of electrodes are:

- Anode: The electrode where oxidation occurs. - Cathode: The electrode where reduction occurs. An easy way to remember this is that "anode" and "oxidation" both start with a vowel, and "cathode" and "reduction" both start with a consonant.

Example: In a galvanic cell, this designation is followed when the battery is in use.

3. Electrolytes

Electrolytes are substances that contain free ions that make them electrically conductive. They are usually solutions of acids, bases, or salts. For example, sodium chloride (NaCl) dissolved in water dissociates into Na + and Cl− ions, which can carry an electric current.

4. Electrochemical cell

Electrochemical cells are devices that are able to generate electrical energy from a chemical reaction or facilitate a chemical reaction through the introduction of electrical energy. There are two main types:

- Galvanic cells (voltaic cells): convert chemical energy into electrical energy spontaneously. An example of this is a simple battery. 
Example: Daniel Cell Anode Reaction: Zn → Zn 2+ + 2e - Cathode Reaction: Cu 2+ + 2e - → Cu Net Cell Reaction: Zn + Cu 2+ → Zn 2+ + Cu
- Electrolytic cells: use electrical energy to drive a non-spontaneous chemical reaction.

Fundamental laws of electrochemistry

There are some important rules and principles to understand electrochemical processes.

1. Faraday's laws of electrolysis

Michael Faraday provided quantitative rules about the amount of matter transferred during electrolysis.

  • First Law: The mass of the substance converted at the electrode is directly proportional to the amount of electricity (charge) passed through the electrolyte.
  • Second Law: The masses of different substances liberated by the same amount of electricity passing through an electrolyte are proportional to their equivalent weights.

2. Nernst equation

The Nernst equation provides the dependence of the cell potential on temperature, pressure, and concentration:

E = E 0 - (RT/nF) * ln(Q)

Where:

- ( E ) is the cell potential. - ( E_0 ) is the standard cell potential. - ( R ) is the gas constant. - ( T ) is the temperature in Kelvin. - ( n ) is the number of moles of electrons. - ( F ) is the Faraday constant. - ( Q ) is the reaction quotient. E Cell

Applications of Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry plays a vital role in a variety of industries and scientific advancements.

1. Battery

Batteries are ubiquitous in powering electronic devices and vehicles. They produce electricity based on electrochemical reactions. Common types include lead-acid, lithium-ion, and alkaline batteries.

2. Electroplating

Electroplating involves plating a thin layer of one metal onto another. This process is used to prevent rust, improve appearance, and reduce friction.

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For example, coating iron with nickel gives the iron good resistance to rust.

3. Electrolysis

Electrolysis is used in the extraction and purification of metals and in the production of chemical compounds such as chlorine and hydrogen. A prime example is the electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride to produce chlorine gas and hydrogen gas.

4. Fuel cells

Fuel cells are devices that convert chemical energy directly into electrical energy, allowing for high efficiency and low environmental impact. Hydrogen fuel cells are a prime example:

Anode Reaction: 2H 2 → 4H + + 4e - Cathode Reaction: O 2 + 4H + + 4e - → 2H 2 O Overall Reaction: 2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O

Conclusion

Electrochemistry is a versatile field that combines chemistry and electricity, with far-reaching implications in energy, materials science, and environmental technology. The principles underlying this discipline are crucial in advancing technologies for a sustainable future. Understanding the basic and complex concepts of electrochemistry can spur innovations and improve existing technologies, making it a cornerstone of modern chemistry.


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Electrochemistry

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