Graduate
  1. Physical Chemistry  1.1. Thermodynamics  1.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.1.2. Enthalpy and heat capacity  1.1.3. Entropy and free energy  1.1.4. Phase Equilibrium  1.1.5. Statistical thermodynamics  1.1.6. Thermodynamic cycle  1.1.7. Fugacity and activity  1.2. Quantum Chemistry  1.2.1. Principles of quantum mechanics  1.2.2. Schrödinger Equation  1.2.3. Particle in a box  1.2.4. Operators and eigenvalues  1.2.5. Atomic orbitals  1.2.6. Molecular orbital theory  1.2.7. Perturbation theory  1.2.8. Valence bond theory  1.2.9. Hybridization and chemical bonding  1.3. Chemical kinetics  1.3.1. Rate laws and reaction mechanisms  1.3.2. Collision theory  1.3.3. Transition state theory  1.3.4. Enzyme Kinetics  1.3.5. Chain Reactions and Polymerization  1.3.6. Photochemical reactions  1.4. Statistical mechanics  1.4.1. Partitioning functions  1.4.2. Molecular distribution functions  1.4.3. Boltzmann Distribution  1.4.4. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  1.5. Spectroscopy  1.5.1. Rotational Spectroscopy  1.5.2. Vibrational Spectroscopy  1.5.3. Electronic Spectroscopy  1.5.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.5.5. Mass Spectrometry  1.5.6. Raman Spectroscopy  1.5.7. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.6. Surface and colloidal chemistry  1.6.1. Absorption isotherm  1.6.2. Surface tension and wetting  1.6.3. Colloidal Stability  1.6.4. Catalysis  1.6.5. Emulsions and micelles  1.7. Electrochemistry  1.7.1. Nernst equation  1.7.2. Electrochemical cells  1.7.3. Conductivity and mobility  1.7.4. War  1.7.5. Fuel cells  1.7.6. Electrolysis
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic reactions  2.2. Spectroscopy and structural determination  2.2.1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy  2.2.2. IR Spectroscopy  2.2.3. NMR Spectroscopy  2.2.4. Mass Spectrometry  2.2.5. X-ray crystallography  2.3. Stereoscopic  2.3.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.3.2. Structural analysis  2.3.3. Geometrical isomerism  2.3.4. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.4. Organometallic Chemistry  2.4.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.4.2. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions  2.4.3. Transition Metal Complexes  2.4.4. Metal–carbon bond  2.5. Polymer chemistry  2.5.1. Polymerization mechanism  2.5.2. Polymer Characteristics  2.5.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.5.4. Conducting polymer  2.5.5. Supramolecular polymers  2.6. Medicinal chemistry  2.6.1. Drug design and development  2.6.2. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics  2.6.3. Structure-activity relationships  2.6.4. Molecular docking and drug screening
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Crystal field theory  3.1.2. Ligand field theory  3.1.3. Spectrochemical Series  3.1.4. Chelation and stability  3.2. Organometallic Chemistry  3.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  3.2.2. Catalysis by organometallic complexes  3.2.3. Metallocenes  3.3. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.3.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  3.3.2. The role of metals in biological systems  3.3.3. Metal ion transport and storage  3.4. Solid state chemistry  3.4.1. Crystal Structures  3.4.2. Band theory of solids  3.4.3. Superconductors  3.4.4. Defects in the crystal  3.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.5.1. Electronic configuration in lanthanides and actinides  3.5.2. Coordination chemistry of the lanthanides  3.5.3. Magnetic Properties of Lanthanides
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.2. Spectroscopic Techniques  4.2.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.2.2. X-ray diffraction  4.2.3. Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy  4.3. Electroanalytical methods  4.3.1. Potentiometry  4.3.2. Voltammetry  4.3.3. Colometry  4.4. Mass Spectrometry  4.4.1. Ionization Technique  4.4.2. Fragmentation Pattern  4.5. Chemometrics  4.5.1. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.5.2. Machine Learning in Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.1.1. Force fields and energy minimization  5.1.2. Monte Carlo simulation in molecular dynamics simulations  5.2. Quantum chemical methods  5.2.1. Hartree–Fock theory  5.2.2. Density functional theory  5.2.3. Semi-empirical methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.3.1. Molecular Docking  5.3.2. QSAR Modeling  5.3.3. Virtual Screening
  6. Biochemistry  6.1. Enzyme Kinetics  6.1.1. Michaelis-Menten kinetics  6.1.2. Inhibition mechanism  6.2. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  6.2.1. Glycolysis  6.2.2. Citric acid cycle  6.2.3. Electron transport chain  6.3. molecular Biology  6.3.1. DNA replication and repair  6.3.2. Protein synthesis  6.3.3. Gene Regulation  6.4. Structural Biochemistry  6.4.1. Protein Folding  6.4.2. Membrane Biophysics
  7. Environmental Chemistry  7.1. Atmospheric Chemistry  7.1.1. Greenhouse gases  7.1.2. Ozone depletion  7.1.3. Air pollutants and smoke  7.2. Water Chemistry  7.2.1. pH and water hardness  7.2.2. Wastewater treatment  7.2.3. Aquatic Chemistry  7.3. Soil Chemistry  7.3.1. Heavy metal contamination  7.3.2. Soil pH and Buffering  7.3.3. Nutrient cycling  7.4. Toxicology and Chemical Safety  7.4.1. Toxicokinetics  7.4.2. Risk Assessment in Toxicology and Chemical Safety in Environmental Chemistry  7.4.3. Effects of pollutants on the environment

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Organic chemistry


Organic chemistry is a sub-discipline of chemistry that deals with the structure, properties, composition, reactions and preparation of carbon-containing compounds. These compounds, which contain carbon and hydrogen, may also contain many other elements - mainly oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, phosphorus and halogens.

Carbon is unique for its ability to form stable bonds with itself, resulting in a wide variety of structures collectively known as organic compounds. There are millions of known organic compounds, and they serve as the basis for all known life. Understanding organic chemistry is essential for fields such as medicine, biochemistry, and physics.

The unique nature of carbon

Carbon's ability to form four covalent bonds is important for the diversity of organic compounds. This tetravalency allows carbon to form long chains, branched molecules, and complex ring structures. Let's consider a simple representation of methane, the simplest organic molecule:

CH₄
C

Each line represents a bond from the central carbon atom to a hydrogen atom. Carbon's ability to form such stable bonds allows for complex macromolecules, which are essential to the structural and functional traits of organisms.

Functional group

Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for specific chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional groups will undergo similar reactions regardless of the compound they are found in. Major functional groups include:

  • -OH (hydroxyl group in alcohol)
  • -COOH (carboxyl group in carboxylic acid)
  • -NH₂ (amino group in amines)
  • -C=O (carbonyl group in ketones and aldehydes)
Oh COOH NH₂ C=O

Isomerism in organic chemistry

Isomerism is a phenomenon in which two or more compounds have the same chemical formula but different arrangements of atoms in the molecule. This leads to different physical and chemical properties. There are two main types of isomerism: structural isomerism and stereoisomerism.

Structural isomerism

Structural isomers have the same molecular formula, but the covalent arrangement of their atoms is different. For example, butane C₄H₁₀ has two structural isomers: n-butane and isobutane.

n-butane: CH₃-CH₂-CH₂-CH₃ Isobutane: (CH₃)₃CH

Stereoscopic

Stereochemistry involves the study of the spatial arrangement of atoms in molecules. It is important for determining the properties and reactivity of various organic compounds. Enantiomers are a common example of stereoisomers where the molecules are mirror images of each other.

R-enantiomer S-enantiomer

Reactions in organic chemistry

Organic reactions involve the breaking and making of bonds in compounds. The main reactions include substitution, addition, elimination, and rearrangement.

Substitution reactions

In a substitution reaction, an atom or group of atoms is replaced by another. A common example is the replacement of a hydrogen atom in an alkane by a halogen, known as halogenation.

CH₄ + Cl₂ → CH₃Cl + HCl

Addition reactions

Addition reactions occur when two or more molecules combine to form a larger molecule. Alkenes and alkynes usually undergo addition reactions due to the presence of double or triple bonds.

C₂H₄ + Br₂ → C₂H₄Br₂

Elimination reactions

Elimination reactions involve the removal of a small molecule from a larger molecule, often resulting in the formation of a double bond.

C₂H₅OH → C₂H₄ + H₂O

Rearrangement reactions

Rearrangement reactions involve the reorganization of the molecular structure without adding or removing atoms.

Applications of organic chemistry

Organic chemistry is important in a variety of industries, including pharmaceuticals and plastics. It is also important for the development of dyes, detergents, fuels, and many other products. Here are some examples of typical applications:

  • Pharmaceuticals: Organic chemistry is important in the design and synthesis of drugs. Understanding the interactions between molecules helps scientists develop compounds that can target specific biological pathways.
  • Polymers: Organic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene and polystyrene have diverse applications ranging from packaging to textiles.
  • Materials science: The development of carbon-based materials such as graphene is based on organic chemistry.

Conclusion

Organic chemistry is a vast and fascinating field of science, with fundamental implications for chemistry, biology, medicine, and industry. Understanding the basics of organic molecules, their reactions, and applications forms a foundation for exploring the complex chemistry that drives living organisms and advanced materials.


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Organic chemistry

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