Graduate
  1. Physical Chemistry  1.1. Thermodynamics  1.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.1.2. Enthalpy and heat capacity  1.1.3. Entropy and free energy  1.1.4. Phase Equilibrium  1.1.5. Statistical thermodynamics  1.1.6. Thermodynamic cycle  1.1.7. Fugacity and activity  1.2. Quantum Chemistry  1.2.1. Principles of quantum mechanics  1.2.2. Schrödinger Equation  1.2.3. Particle in a box  1.2.4. Operators and eigenvalues  1.2.5. Atomic orbitals  1.2.6. Molecular orbital theory  1.2.7. Perturbation theory  1.2.8. Valence bond theory  1.2.9. Hybridization and chemical bonding  1.3. Chemical kinetics  1.3.1. Rate laws and reaction mechanisms  1.3.2. Collision theory  1.3.3. Transition state theory  1.3.4. Enzyme Kinetics  1.3.5. Chain Reactions and Polymerization  1.3.6. Photochemical reactions  1.4. Statistical mechanics  1.4.1. Partitioning functions  1.4.2. Molecular distribution functions  1.4.3. Boltzmann Distribution  1.4.4. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  1.5. Spectroscopy  1.5.1. Rotational Spectroscopy  1.5.2. Vibrational Spectroscopy  1.5.3. Electronic Spectroscopy  1.5.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.5.5. Mass Spectrometry  1.5.6. Raman Spectroscopy  1.5.7. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.6. Surface and colloidal chemistry  1.6.1. Absorption isotherm  1.6.2. Surface tension and wetting  1.6.3. Colloidal Stability  1.6.4. Catalysis  1.6.5. Emulsions and micelles  1.7. Electrochemistry  1.7.1. Nernst equation  1.7.2. Electrochemical cells  1.7.3. Conductivity and mobility  1.7.4. War  1.7.5. Fuel cells  1.7.6. Electrolysis
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic reactions  2.2. Spectroscopy and structural determination  2.2.1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy  2.2.2. IR Spectroscopy  2.2.3. NMR Spectroscopy  2.2.4. Mass Spectrometry  2.2.5. X-ray crystallography  2.3. Stereoscopic  2.3.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.3.2. Structural analysis  2.3.3. Geometrical isomerism  2.3.4. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.4. Organometallic Chemistry  2.4.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.4.2. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions  2.4.3. Transition Metal Complexes  2.4.4. Metal–carbon bond  2.5. Polymer chemistry  2.5.1. Polymerization mechanism  2.5.2. Polymer Characteristics  2.5.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.5.4. Conducting polymer  2.5.5. Supramolecular polymers  2.6. Medicinal chemistry  2.6.1. Drug design and development  2.6.2. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics  2.6.3. Structure-activity relationships  2.6.4. Molecular docking and drug screening
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Crystal field theory  3.1.2. Ligand field theory  3.1.3. Spectrochemical Series  3.1.4. Chelation and stability  3.2. Organometallic Chemistry  3.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  3.2.2. Catalysis by organometallic complexes  3.2.3. Metallocenes  3.3. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.3.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  3.3.2. The role of metals in biological systems  3.3.3. Metal ion transport and storage  3.4. Solid state chemistry  3.4.1. Crystal Structures  3.4.2. Band theory of solids  3.4.3. Superconductors  3.4.4. Defects in the crystal  3.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.5.1. Electronic configuration in lanthanides and actinides  3.5.2. Coordination chemistry of the lanthanides  3.5.3. Magnetic Properties of Lanthanides
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.2. Spectroscopic Techniques  4.2.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.2.2. X-ray diffraction  4.2.3. Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy  4.3. Electroanalytical methods  4.3.1. Potentiometry  4.3.2. Voltammetry  4.3.3. Colometry  4.4. Mass Spectrometry  4.4.1. Ionization Technique  4.4.2. Fragmentation Pattern  4.5. Chemometrics  4.5.1. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.5.2. Machine Learning in Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.1.1. Force fields and energy minimization  5.1.2. Monte Carlo simulation in molecular dynamics simulations  5.2. Quantum chemical methods  5.2.1. Hartree–Fock theory  5.2.2. Density functional theory  5.2.3. Semi-empirical methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.3.1. Molecular Docking  5.3.2. QSAR Modeling  5.3.3. Virtual Screening
  6. Biochemistry  6.1. Enzyme Kinetics  6.1.1. Michaelis-Menten kinetics  6.1.2. Inhibition mechanism  6.2. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  6.2.1. Glycolysis  6.2.2. Citric acid cycle  6.2.3. Electron transport chain  6.3. molecular Biology  6.3.1. DNA replication and repair  6.3.2. Protein synthesis  6.3.3. Gene Regulation  6.4. Structural Biochemistry  6.4.1. Protein Folding  6.4.2. Membrane Biophysics
  7. Environmental Chemistry  7.1. Atmospheric Chemistry  7.1.1. Greenhouse gases  7.1.2. Ozone depletion  7.1.3. Air pollutants and smoke  7.2. Water Chemistry  7.2.1. pH and water hardness  7.2.2. Wastewater treatment  7.2.3. Aquatic Chemistry  7.3. Soil Chemistry  7.3.1. Heavy metal contamination  7.3.2. Soil pH and Buffering  7.3.3. Nutrient cycling  7.4. Toxicology and Chemical Safety  7.4.1. Toxicokinetics  7.4.2. Risk Assessment in Toxicology and Chemical Safety in Environmental Chemistry  7.4.3. Effects of pollutants on the environment

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Analytical chemistry


Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that focuses on the analysis of physical substances. It involves understanding the composition of substances and determining the amount of various components present in them. Analytical chemistry plays a vital role in quality control, forensic science, clinical analysis, and various industrial processes. It ensures that chemical compounds meet the required standards and regulations.

Role of analytical chemistry

Analytical chemistry allows scientists and chemists to determine the identity and concentrations of substances. There are two main types of analysis:

  • Qualitative analysis: This determines which components are present in a substance.
  • Quantitative analysis: Measures the amount or concentration of components within a substance.

This field is essential because it provides manufacturers with the data they need to create products, ensures that pharmaceutical drugs are safe and effective, and supports environmental monitoring efforts by analyzing pollutants.

Principles and theories

Analytical chemistry is based on solid scientific principles and theories. Some of these important principles are as follows:

  • Stoichiometry: Calculating the reactants and products in chemical reactions. For example, the balanced chemical equation for the reaction between hydrogen gas and oxygen gas to form water is: 
    2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O
  • Equilibrium: The concept of reversible reactions that reach a state where the forward and reverse reaction rates are equal.
  • Acid-base theory: Understanding pH, pKa, and buffer systems is important in many analytical procedures.

Techniques in analytical chemistry

A number of methods and techniques are fundamental in analytical chemistry, each with its own specific applications:

Titration

Titration is a technique in which a solution of known concentration (titrant) is used to determine the concentration of an unknown solution (analyte). For example, in an acid-base titration, the point at which the acid is completely neutralized by the base is known as the equivalence point.

starting point endpoint Equivalence point

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy involves the interaction of light with matter to give information about the structure of the substance. Types include:

  • UV/visible spectroscopy: used to measure the absorption and transmission of substances in the UV and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum.
  • Infrared spectroscopy (IR): Provides information about molecular vibrations that can indicate functional groups within molecules.

Example of spectroscopic analysis of ethanol: 

C 2 H 6 O
The infrared spectrum usually shows peaks associated with O-H bonds.

Oh Stretch

Chromatography

Chromatography separates the components of a mixture based on their distribution between the stationary and mobile phase. Types include:

  • Gas Chromatography (GC): Ideal for volatile compounds.
  • High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC): This is used for compounds that do not easily vaporize.

In chromatography, retention time can help identify a compound. An example chromatogram might look like this:

Peak 1 Peak 2

Error and uncertainty in measurement

In analytical chemistry, it is important to measure the error and uncertainty in any experiment. Errors can be classified as:

  • Systematic error: A persistent error that can be corrected.
  • Random error: occurs without any predictable pattern, it can be reduced but cannot be eliminated.

It is important to understand the accuracy and precision of your measurements. Accuracy refers to how repeatable the results are, while precision is about how close the results are to the true value. For example, consistently measuring a sample concentration at 50.5 M when the true concentration is 50.0 M shows accuracy but not precision.

Data analysis and interpretation

In any analytical process, understanding the data correctly is as important as collecting it. Here are some key aspects to consider:

  • Statistical analysis: The use of statistical methods to assess the validity and reliability of experimental results.
  • Calibration: Comparison of the response of an instrument with known standards.
  • Signal-to-noise ratio: A measurement used to quantify how much useful information is in the spectrum relative to background noise.

Applications of analytical chemistry

Analytical chemistry is indispensable in many fields, mainly because of its versatility. Its applications include:

  • Environmental monitoring: measurement of pollutants and assessment of environmental compliance.
  • Pharmaceuticals: Ensuring consistency and detecting impurities in drug manufacturing.
  • Food industry: quality control and safety testing, analysis of nutritional content.

For example, measuring the amount of pesticide residues in food products can help ensure food safety. Analysis may involve extracting a sample and using chromatographic techniques for accurate measurement.

Conclusion

Analytical chemistry is a broad and dynamic field that plays an essential role in a variety of industries. Its methods and principles underpin our ability to accurately and efficiently determine the composition of materials. Understanding the techniques and procedures in analytical chemistry is vital to advancing scientific knowledge and technological progress.


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Analytical chemistry

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