Graduate
  1. Physical Chemistry  1.1. Thermodynamics  1.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.1.2. Enthalpy and heat capacity  1.1.3. Entropy and free energy  1.1.4. Phase Equilibrium  1.1.5. Statistical thermodynamics  1.1.6. Thermodynamic cycle  1.1.7. Fugacity and activity  1.2. Quantum Chemistry  1.2.1. Principles of quantum mechanics  1.2.2. Schrödinger Equation  1.2.3. Particle in a box  1.2.4. Operators and eigenvalues  1.2.5. Atomic orbitals  1.2.6. Molecular orbital theory  1.2.7. Perturbation theory  1.2.8. Valence bond theory  1.2.9. Hybridization and chemical bonding  1.3. Chemical kinetics  1.3.1. Rate laws and reaction mechanisms  1.3.2. Collision theory  1.3.3. Transition state theory  1.3.4. Enzyme Kinetics  1.3.5. Chain Reactions and Polymerization  1.3.6. Photochemical reactions  1.4. Statistical mechanics  1.4.1. Partitioning functions  1.4.2. Molecular distribution functions  1.4.3. Boltzmann Distribution  1.4.4. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  1.5. Spectroscopy  1.5.1. Rotational Spectroscopy  1.5.2. Vibrational Spectroscopy  1.5.3. Electronic Spectroscopy  1.5.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.5.5. Mass Spectrometry  1.5.6. Raman Spectroscopy  1.5.7. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.6. Surface and colloidal chemistry  1.6.1. Absorption isotherm  1.6.2. Surface tension and wetting  1.6.3. Colloidal Stability  1.6.4. Catalysis  1.6.5. Emulsions and micelles  1.7. Electrochemistry  1.7.1. Nernst equation  1.7.2. Electrochemical cells  1.7.3. Conductivity and mobility  1.7.4. War  1.7.5. Fuel cells  1.7.6. Electrolysis
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic reactions  2.2. Spectroscopy and structural determination  2.2.1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy  2.2.2. IR Spectroscopy  2.2.3. NMR Spectroscopy  2.2.4. Mass Spectrometry  2.2.5. X-ray crystallography  2.3. Stereoscopic  2.3.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.3.2. Structural analysis  2.3.3. Geometrical isomerism  2.3.4. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.4. Organometallic Chemistry  2.4.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.4.2. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions  2.4.3. Transition Metal Complexes  2.4.4. Metal–carbon bond  2.5. Polymer chemistry  2.5.1. Polymerization mechanism  2.5.2. Polymer Characteristics  2.5.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.5.4. Conducting polymer  2.5.5. Supramolecular polymers  2.6. Medicinal chemistry  2.6.1. Drug design and development  2.6.2. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics  2.6.3. Structure-activity relationships  2.6.4. Molecular docking and drug screening
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Crystal field theory  3.1.2. Ligand field theory  3.1.3. Spectrochemical Series  3.1.4. Chelation and stability  3.2. Organometallic Chemistry  3.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  3.2.2. Catalysis by organometallic complexes  3.2.3. Metallocenes  3.3. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.3.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  3.3.2. The role of metals in biological systems  3.3.3. Metal ion transport and storage  3.4. Solid state chemistry  3.4.1. Crystal Structures  3.4.2. Band theory of solids  3.4.3. Superconductors  3.4.4. Defects in the crystal  3.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.5.1. Electronic configuration in lanthanides and actinides  3.5.2. Coordination chemistry of the lanthanides  3.5.3. Magnetic Properties of Lanthanides
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.2. Spectroscopic Techniques  4.2.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.2.2. X-ray diffraction  4.2.3. Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy  4.3. Electroanalytical methods  4.3.1. Potentiometry  4.3.2. Voltammetry  4.3.3. Colometry  4.4. Mass Spectrometry  4.4.1. Ionization Technique  4.4.2. Fragmentation Pattern  4.5. Chemometrics  4.5.1. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.5.2. Machine Learning in Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.1.1. Force fields and energy minimization  5.1.2. Monte Carlo simulation in molecular dynamics simulations  5.2. Quantum chemical methods  5.2.1. Hartree–Fock theory  5.2.2. Density functional theory  5.2.3. Semi-empirical methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.3.1. Molecular Docking  5.3.2. QSAR Modeling  5.3.3. Virtual Screening
  6. Biochemistry  6.1. Enzyme Kinetics  6.1.1. Michaelis-Menten kinetics  6.1.2. Inhibition mechanism  6.2. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  6.2.1. Glycolysis  6.2.2. Citric acid cycle  6.2.3. Electron transport chain  6.3. molecular Biology  6.3.1. DNA replication and repair  6.3.2. Protein synthesis  6.3.3. Gene Regulation  6.4. Structural Biochemistry  6.4.1. Protein Folding  6.4.2. Membrane Biophysics
  7. Environmental Chemistry  7.1. Atmospheric Chemistry  7.1.1. Greenhouse gases  7.1.2. Ozone depletion  7.1.3. Air pollutants and smoke  7.2. Water Chemistry  7.2.1. pH and water hardness  7.2.2. Wastewater treatment  7.2.3. Aquatic Chemistry  7.3. Soil Chemistry  7.3.1. Heavy metal contamination  7.3.2. Soil pH and Buffering  7.3.3. Nutrient cycling  7.4. Toxicology and Chemical Safety  7.4.1. Toxicokinetics  7.4.2. Risk Assessment in Toxicology and Chemical Safety in Environmental Chemistry  7.4.3. Effects of pollutants on the environment

Graduate → Inorganic chemistry ↓


Solid state chemistry


Solid state chemistry is a broad field within inorganic chemistry that focuses on the study and understanding of the properties, structure, and behavior of solids. This domain overlaps considerably with materials science and has far-reaching implications in a variety of technological advancements, including electronics, energy storage, and structural materials.

Introduction to solid state

In chemistry, the term "solid state" refers to a state of matter in which atoms or ions are arranged in a well-ordered three-dimensional lattice. This order results in a defined shape and volume for the substance. The solid state is distinguished from the liquid and gaseous states because the particles in it are tightly packed, often in a repeating pattern known as a crystal lattice.

The behavior and properties of solids are intricately linked to this crystalline structure. For example, the melting point, electrical conductivity, mechanical strength, and thermal expansion of a solid depend on how its atoms or ions are arranged and connected to each other.

Crystal structures

The crystalline structure of solids is the primary focus of solid state chemistry. The structure of a crystal describes the arrangement of atoms in a regular, repeating pattern. Understanding these structures helps predict the behavior of substances and create new compounds with specific properties.

Unit cell

The smallest repeating unit of a crystal lattice is known as a unit cell. Unit cells are the building blocks of the crystal structure, and their geometric arrangement determines the macroscopic properties of the crystal. Common types of unit cells include:

  • Primitive (simple) cube
  • Body-centered cubic (BCC)
  • Face-centered cubic (FCC)
  • Hexagonal close-packed (HCP)

Packing efficiency

Packing efficiency refers to the fraction of the volume occupied by particles in a crystal, compared to the total volume of the lattice. This efficiency is important for determining the density and stability of the crystal structure. For example, the FCC and HCP arrangements offer higher packing efficiency (~74%) than BCC (~68%).

Bonding in solids

Bonding in solids defines their mechanical strength, electrical properties, and thermal behavior. The primary types of bonding in solids are as follows:

  • Ionic bonding: found in compounds such as NaCl, where oppositely charged ions form a crystalline lattice through electrostatic interactions.
  • Covalent bond: Occurs in some elements like semiconductors and diamond where atoms share electrons.
  • Metallic bond: Present in metals such as copper or aluminum, it is characterized by a sea of delocalized electrons around the positive ions.
  • Van der Waals forces: Present in molecular crystals such as solids I_2, where weak intermolecular forces hold the molecules together.

These bond types provide unique properties in materials. For example, ionic solids are often hard, brittle, and have high melting points, while metallic materials are malleable and excellent conductors of electricity.

Defects in the crystal

Real-world crystals often contain imperfections, even though the ideal repeating nature is predicted by ideal lattice models. These imperfections, or defects, can significantly affect the physical properties of the material.

Types of defects

  • Point defects: These include vacancies (missing atoms) and interstitials (extra atoms located at non-lattice sites). These defects can affect properties such as ionic conductivity.
  • Line defects (dislocations): Dislocations are deviations from perfect periodicity along a line in a crystal, which are important in determining mechanical properties.
  • Planar defects: These include grain boundaries and surfaces that affect physical properties such as recrystallization and melting.

Electronic properties of solids

The electronic properties of a solid are largely determined by the nature of the band structure, which results from the overlap of atomic orbitals in the solid. This overlap creates 'bands' of energy levels, which are divided into the valence band and the conduction band.

Band theory

Band theory provides the basis for understanding the electrical conductivity of various materials. Solids are generally classified into conductors, semiconductors, and insulators based on the difference between the valence and conduction bands:

  • Conductors: In metals such as copper, the conduction band is partially filled, allowing electrons to flow easily.
  • Semiconductors: Materials such as silicon have a small energy gap that can be overcome by thermal energy, making controlled electric current flow possible.
  • Insulators: In materials such as quartz, the large band gap prevents electron flow under normal conditions.
    
    
        
        
        conduction band
        valence band
        band gap

Magnetic properties of solids

The magnetic properties of solids arise from the behaviour and arrangement of electrons within the material. These properties can be classified into different types:

  • Diamagnetism: Weak repulsion from a magnetic field, observed in materials where all electrons are paired.
  • Paramagnetism: Attraction to a magnetic field observed in materials that have unpaired electrons that are aligned with the external field.
  • Ferromagnetism: The strong attraction and retention of magnetic properties observed in iron, due to aligned electron spins.
  • Antiferromagnetism: Having opposite magnetic moments that cancel each other out, common in compounds such as MnO.
  • Ferrimagnetism: Similar to antiferromagnetism but with unequal opposing magnetic moments, resulting in net magnetism, often seen in magnetite (Fe3O4).

Applications of solid state chemistry

Solid state chemistry plays a fundamental role in the development of many technologies with societal benefits:

  • Electronics: Semiconductors are at the heart of electronic devices, be it computers or smartphones. Materials such as Si and GaAs play a vital role in creating efficient and powerful electronic components.
  • Energy storage: Advances in battery technology, particularly in the case of lithium-ion batteries, rely on solid state chemistry to improve energy capacity and lifecycle.
  • Catalysis: Many industrial catalysts are solid materials, where understanding the surface structures and defects is essential to optimize chemical reactivity.
  • Structural materials: The development of new alloys and ceramics with improved mechanical properties is based on the principles of solid state chemistry.

Conclusion

Solid state chemistry serves as a bridge between chemistry and materials science, providing information about the structure, properties, and functionality of substances. As technology continues to evolve, the field remains at the forefront, enabling new innovations and applications that safeguard the progress of our society.


Graduate → 3.4


U
username
0%
completed in Graduate

← Prev (3.3.3)
Metal ion transport and storage
Next (3.4.1) →
Crystal Structures

Comments 



Solid state chemistry

https://www.chemistryelite.com/g/3.4?ceal=en