Graduate
  1. Physical Chemistry  1.1. Thermodynamics  1.1.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.1.2. Enthalpy and heat capacity  1.1.3. Entropy and free energy  1.1.4. Phase Equilibrium  1.1.5. Statistical thermodynamics  1.1.6. Thermodynamic cycle  1.1.7. Fugacity and activity  1.2. Quantum Chemistry  1.2.1. Principles of quantum mechanics  1.2.2. Schrödinger Equation  1.2.3. Particle in a box  1.2.4. Operators and eigenvalues  1.2.5. Atomic orbitals  1.2.6. Molecular orbital theory  1.2.7. Perturbation theory  1.2.8. Valence bond theory  1.2.9. Hybridization and chemical bonding  1.3. Chemical kinetics  1.3.1. Rate laws and reaction mechanisms  1.3.2. Collision theory  1.3.3. Transition state theory  1.3.4. Enzyme Kinetics  1.3.5. Chain Reactions and Polymerization  1.3.6. Photochemical reactions  1.4. Statistical mechanics  1.4.1. Partitioning functions  1.4.2. Molecular distribution functions  1.4.3. Boltzmann Distribution  1.4.4. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  1.5. Spectroscopy  1.5.1. Rotational Spectroscopy  1.5.2. Vibrational Spectroscopy  1.5.3. Electronic Spectroscopy  1.5.4. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.5.5. Mass Spectrometry  1.5.6. Raman Spectroscopy  1.5.7. Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy  1.6. Surface and colloidal chemistry  1.6.1. Absorption isotherm  1.6.2. Surface tension and wetting  1.6.3. Colloidal Stability  1.6.4. Catalysis  1.6.5. Emulsions and micelles  1.7. Electrochemistry  1.7.1. Nernst equation  1.7.2. Electrochemical cells  1.7.3. Conductivity and mobility  1.7.4. War  1.7.5. Fuel cells  1.7.6. Electrolysis
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Reaction mechanism  2.1.1. Nucleophilic substitution reactions  2.1.2. Electrophilic addition reactions  2.1.3. Elimination reactions  2.1.4. Rearrangement reactions  2.1.5. Radical reactions  2.1.6. Pericyclic reactions  2.2. Spectroscopy and structural determination  2.2.1. UV-Vis Spectroscopy  2.2.2. IR Spectroscopy  2.2.3. NMR Spectroscopy  2.2.4. Mass Spectrometry  2.2.5. X-ray crystallography  2.3. Stereoscopic  2.3.1. Chirality and optical activity  2.3.2. Structural analysis  2.3.3. Geometrical isomerism  2.3.4. Dynamic Stereochemistry  2.4. Organometallic Chemistry  2.4.1. Organolithium and organomagnesium reagents  2.4.2. Palladium-catalyzed cross-coupling reactions  2.4.3. Transition Metal Complexes  2.4.4. Metal–carbon bond  2.5. Polymer chemistry  2.5.1. Polymerization mechanism  2.5.2. Polymer Characteristics  2.5.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.5.4. Conducting polymer  2.5.5. Supramolecular polymers  2.6. Medicinal chemistry  2.6.1. Drug design and development  2.6.2. Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics  2.6.3. Structure-activity relationships  2.6.4. Molecular docking and drug screening
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Crystal field theory  3.1.2. Ligand field theory  3.1.3. Spectrochemical Series  3.1.4. Chelation and stability  3.2. Organometallic Chemistry  3.2.1. Metal Carbonyls  3.2.2. Catalysis by organometallic complexes  3.2.3. Metallocenes  3.3. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.3.1. Metalloproteins and enzymes  3.3.2. The role of metals in biological systems  3.3.3. Metal ion transport and storage  3.4. Solid state chemistry  3.4.1. Crystal Structures  3.4.2. Band theory of solids  3.4.3. Superconductors  3.4.4. Defects in the crystal  3.5. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.5.1. Electronic configuration in lanthanides and actinides  3.5.2. Coordination chemistry of the lanthanides  3.5.3. Magnetic Properties of Lanthanides
  4. Analytical chemistry  4.1. Chromatography  4.1.1. Gas Chromatography  4.1.2. High Performance Liquid Chromatography  4.1.3. Thin Layer Chromatography  4.2. Spectroscopic Techniques  4.2.1. Atomic absorption spectroscopy  4.2.2. X-ray diffraction  4.2.3. Inductively coupled plasma spectroscopy  4.3. Electroanalytical methods  4.3.1. Potentiometry  4.3.2. Voltammetry  4.3.3. Colometry  4.4. Mass Spectrometry  4.4.1. Ionization Technique  4.4.2. Fragmentation Pattern  4.5. Chemometrics  4.5.1. Multidisciplinary analysis  4.5.2. Machine Learning in Chemistry
  5. Theoretical and Computational Chemistry  5.1. Molecular dynamics simulation  5.1.1. Force fields and energy minimization  5.1.2. Monte Carlo simulation in molecular dynamics simulations  5.2. Quantum chemical methods  5.2.1. Hartree–Fock theory  5.2.2. Density functional theory  5.2.3. Semi-empirical methods  5.3. Computational drug design  5.3.1. Molecular Docking  5.3.2. QSAR Modeling  5.3.3. Virtual Screening
  6. Biochemistry  6.1. Enzyme Kinetics  6.1.1. Michaelis-Menten kinetics  6.1.2. Inhibition mechanism  6.2. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  6.2.1. Glycolysis  6.2.2. Citric acid cycle  6.2.3. Electron transport chain  6.3. molecular Biology  6.3.1. DNA replication and repair  6.3.2. Protein synthesis  6.3.3. Gene Regulation  6.4. Structural Biochemistry  6.4.1. Protein Folding  6.4.2. Membrane Biophysics
  7. Environmental Chemistry  7.1. Atmospheric Chemistry  7.1.1. Greenhouse gases  7.1.2. Ozone depletion  7.1.3. Air pollutants and smoke  7.2. Water Chemistry  7.2.1. pH and water hardness  7.2.2. Wastewater treatment  7.2.3. Aquatic Chemistry  7.3. Soil Chemistry  7.3.1. Heavy metal contamination  7.3.2. Soil pH and Buffering  7.3.3. Nutrient cycling  7.4. Toxicology and Chemical Safety  7.4.1. Toxicokinetics  7.4.2. Risk Assessment in Toxicology and Chemical Safety in Environmental Chemistry  7.4.3. Effects of pollutants on the environment

Graduate → Inorganic chemistry ↓


Lanthanides and Actinides


Lanthanides and actinides are two groups of elements found on the periodic table (though not sequentially), which are often classified together due to their similar properties. Both groups include elements that are f-block elements, meaning that their valence electrons are in f-orbitals.

Lanthanides

The lanthanides series includes elements with atomic numbers 57 (lanthanum) to 71 (lutetium). These elements are also called rare earth elements, their characteristic is that their 4f orbitals are filled with electrons.

La, Ce, Pr, Nd, Pm, Sm, Eu, Gd, Tb, Dy, Ho, Er, Tm, Yb, Lu

Characteristics of lanthanides

Lanthanides are known for their similar chemical properties. Some of the main characteristics are as follows:

  • Highly reactive metals, especially at high temperatures.
  • Tarnishes on contact with air.
  • Act as a good conductor of electricity.
  • Most lanterns exhibit very similar chemical behavior due to contraction.

Chemical examples

Let's take a look at a chemical reaction involving the lanthanides. A common reaction is with water:

2Ln + 6H₂O → 2Ln(OH)₃ + 3H₂

This reaction shows how reactive the lanthanides can be with water, forming hydroxides and releasing hydrogen gas.

Lanthanide contraction

A unique feature of the lanthanides is that there is a steady decrease in the ionic radius and atomic size along the series, known as the lanthanide contraction. This is due to the poor shielding effect of the f-electrons, which does not effectively increase the atomic size with increasing atomic number.

Visual representation:

57 71

Actinides

The actinides series includes elements with atomic numbers from 89 (actinium) to 103 (lawrencium). These elements have electrons filled in 5f orbitals and are mostly radioactive.

Ac, Th, Pa, U, Np, Pu, Am, Cm, Bk, Cf, Es, Fm, Md, No, Lr

Characteristics of actinides

The actinides have distinctive features compared to the lanthanides, including:

  • All of these are radioactive, and some have very short half-lives.
  • Most are synthetic (not naturally occurring).
  • They can exhibit a wide range of oxidation states, unlike the lanthanides.
  • They have complex electronic structures, which makes their chemical behaviour variable.

Chemical examples

An example of the chemical reactivity of actinides is their reaction with halogens. For example:

U + 3Cl₂ → UCl₆

This reflects uranium's ability to form different oxidation states and its high reactivity, which is particularly evident with the halogens.

Atomic properties

The actinides are known for their nuclear properties, while uranium and plutonium are important in nuclear power production and nuclear weapons.

Visual representation of the atomic energy relationship:

Uranium Plutonium

Comparison of lanthanides and actinides

Both series have unique properties, yet they exhibit differences. To highlight the differences:

  • Electronic configuration: Lanthanides fill 4f orbitals, actinides fill 5f orbitals.
  • Reactivity: Lanthanides are generally more reactive with non-metals; actinides have diverse reactivity due to their multiple oxidation states.
  • Occurrence: The lanthanides are relatively common; many actinides are synthetic.
  • Radioactivity: Lanthanides are mostly stable; actinides are radioactive.

Applications of lanthanides and actinides

Lanthanides

Lanthanides are used in a wide variety of applications:

  • Catalysts: Used in petroleum refining and automotive catalytic converters.
  • Optics: In the production of strong magnets and phosphors used in lighting and displays.
  • Medicine: Gadolinium is used as a contrast agent in MRI imaging.

Actinides

The actinides are best known for their role in:

  • Energy: Uranium and plutonium in nuclear energy and weapons.
  • Medicine: Radioisotopes in cancer treatment.

In conclusion, the lanthanides and actinides form important parts of the f-block of the periodic table. Understanding their properties, chemical behaviors, and applications provides deep insights into both advanced inorganic chemistry and applied materials science. Their unique chemistry and vital roles in modern technology highlight their importance, making them a fascinating subject of study for chemists and researchers.


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Lanthanides and Actinides

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