Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate ↓


Biochemistry


Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It is a laboratory-based science that combines both biology and chemistry. Using chemical knowledge and techniques, biochemists can understand and solve biological problems. This subject explores the complexity of life, addressing the molecular mechanisms that influence the behavior of cells.

Understanding biomolecules

Biomolecules are organic molecules that are present in living organisms. There are four main types of biomolecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. In biochemistry, they are known as sugars or saccharides. Carbohydrates serve as energy sources and structural components in organisms. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and consist of a single sugar molecule. Common examples include glucose and fructose.

    C_6H_12O_6 (glucose)

A simplified illustration of glucose is given below:

Hey H H H H Oh

Disaccharides are carbohydrates made from the combination of two monosaccharides. An example of this is sucrose (table sugar), which is made from glucose and fructose.

    C_12H_22O_11 (sucrose)

Lipids

Lipids are a diverse group of hydrophobic molecules. They include fats, oils, and waxes. Lipids are energy storage molecules and components of cellular membranes. A lipid may contain long hydrocarbon chains or more complex ring structures.

An example of a common lipid is a fatty acid, such as palmitic acid.

    C_16H_32O_2 (palmitic acid)

The composition of fatty acids can be as follows:

Oh

Protein

Proteins are made up of amino acids and play important roles in biological processes. They function as enzymes, cellular structures, signaling molecules, and more. Proteins are linear chains of amino acids, folded into specific shapes to perform various biological functions.

An example of an amino acid is glycine.

    NH_2CH_2COOH (Glycine)
nh2 COOH

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information in living organisms. DNA holds the blueprint of an organism in the form of genes, while RNA plays a role in translating these genes into proteins.

Nucleotides are the building blocks of nucleic acids and consist of a phosphate group, a sugar molecule, and a nitrogenous base.

    C_10H_14N_5O_7P (adenine nucleotide)
Phosphate Sugar

Enzymes

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in cells. Most enzymes are proteins, and they work by lowering the activation energy of the reaction, thus, speeding up the reaction process. Enzymes have specific shapes and perform specific reactions.

A simple representation of enzyme activity:

Enzymes Substrate

Metabolism

Metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur within an organism to maintain life. These reactions are divided into two categories: catabolism, the breakdown of molecules to obtain energy, and anabolism, the synthesis of all compounds needed by cells. Metabolism is often summarized as a network of interconnected steps called metabolic pathways.

Catabolic pathway

Catabolic pathways break down large molecules into smaller ones, often releasing energy in the process. A common example of this is cellular respiration, where glucose is broken down into water and carbon dioxide, releasing ATP (adenosine triphosphate), the energy currency of cells.

    C_6H_12O_6 + 6 O_2 -> 6 CO_2 + 6 H_2O + energy (ATP)

Anabolic pathway

Anabolic pathways, on the other hand, are usually responsible for building molecules from smaller units using energy derived from ATP. The biosynthesis of proteins and nucleic acids are examples of anabolic processes.

Here is a simplified reaction for protein synthesis:

    Amino acids + energy (ATP) -> protein

Conclusion

Biochemistry is of great importance in understanding the complexity of life. It provides insight into the molecular basis of life processes through the study of biomolecules, enzymes and metabolic pathways. By understanding biochemistry, one gains insight into how cells use energy, manage waste, grow, repair damage and reproduce.

From understanding DNA to the complex functioning of enzymes, biochemistry provides the tools to understand life in a detailed and profound way. A fundamental understanding of these molecular processes forms the foundation for advances in medicine, agriculture, and biotechnology.


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Biochemistry

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