Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate ↓


Organic chemistry


Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of the structure, properties, composition, reactions, and synthesis of carbon-containing compounds. This includes not only hydrocarbons (compounds composed of carbon and hydrogen), but also compounds containing many other elements, including nitrogen, oxygen, halogens, phosphorus, silicon, and sulfur. The term "organic" was originally used to describe compounds that were thought to be derived from living organisms. However, this definition has evolved to include synthetic compounds.

Basic concepts

A fundamental idea in organic chemistry is the ability of carbon atoms to form four covalent bonds. This unique feature allows carbon atoms to form a huge range of molecules, from simple alkanes to complex proteins and DNA.

Structure of organic compounds

The structure of organic compounds can be represented using several different methods, including line-angle formulas and structural formulas.

Line-angle formula

    CCCC

This is a simplified representation of butane, a four-carbon alkane. Each vertex in the line-angle formula represents a carbon atom, and the lines represent the bonds between them.

Structural formula

    hhhh,
    HCCCCH,
    hhhh

The structural formula of butane shows each bond between atoms, and provides a complete representation of the molecule.

Functional group

Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for specific chemical reactions of those molecules. These include the following:

  • Alcohol: Contains a -OH group. Examples include ethanol (CH3CH2OH).
  • Carboxylic acid: Contains a -COOH group. Examples include acetic acid (CH3COOH).
  • Amine: Contains a -NH2 group. Examples include methylamine (CH3NH2).

Chemical reactions in organic chemistry

Organic reactions often involve the breaking and formation of carbon-carbon (C-C) or carbon-hydrogen (C-H) bonds. These can be classified into several types:

Substitution reactions

In a substitution reaction, an atom or group of atoms in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group of atoms. A simple example of this is replacing the hydrogen atom in methane (CH4) with a chlorine atom to form chloromethane (CH3Cl).

Addition reactions

Addition reactions involve the joining of atoms or groups of atoms at double or triple bonds. Consider adding hydrogen bromide (HBr) to ethene (C2H4) to form bromoethane (C2H5Br).

    C2H4 + HBr → C2H5Br

Elimination reactions

In elimination reactions, elements are removed from the molecule, often resulting in the formation of a double bond. An example of this is the dehydration of ethanol to form ethene and water.

    2H2O + 2O

Isomerism

Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formula but different arrangements of atoms. There are several types of isomerism:

Structural isomerism

Structural isomers differ in the covalent arrangement of their atoms. Butane and isobutane are examples. Butane has a straight-chain structure, while isobutane has a branched structure.

    Butane: C4H10
    Isobutane: C4H10

Stereoisomerism

Stereoisomers have the same structural formula, but differ in the spatial configuration of the atoms. This may include geometric isomerism and optical isomerism.

Geometrical isomerism

Geometrical isomers are usually observed in compounds containing double bonds where rotation is restricted. For example, cis-butene and trans-butene:

HH C=C CH3 CH3 cis-butene H CH3 C=C CH3 H trans-butene

Optical isomerism

Optical isomers are stereo isomers that differ in the way they rotate plane-polarized light. Molecules with chiral centers, such as lactic acid, can have non-superimposable mirror images known as enantiomers.

Macromolecules

Macromolecules are large molecules formed by the polymerization of smaller subunits. Examples include proteins, nucleic acids, and synthetic polymers such as plastics.

Protein

Proteins are polymers of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. They play important roles in biological processes. The sequence of amino acids determines the structure and function of the protein.

Nucleic acids

Nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. They store and transfer genetic information in cells.

Synthetic polymers

Polymers such as polyethylene and polystyrene are made from monomer units. They are used in a variety of products, from packaging to clothing.

    Polyethylene: —(CH2—CH2)n—
    Polystyrene: —(C8H8)n—

Organic chemistry in everyday life

Organic chemistry is fundamental to many aspects of modern life. It is central to the pharmaceutical industry, agriculture, and the development of new materials. Organic compounds are also vital to life, affecting everything from the metabolic pathways that sustain life to the structure of cell membranes.


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Organic chemistry

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