Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → Biochemistry ↓


Metabolism and Bioenergetics


Metabolism and bioenergetics are the main components of biochemistry, which focuses on the chemical processes that occur in living organisms to maintain life. These processes include both the breakdown of molecules to produce energy and the synthesis of compounds needed by cells. We will understand these concepts in simple terms, emphasize the importance of these mechanisms and provide examples to clarify understanding.

Understanding metabolism

At its most basic level, metabolism refers to all the chemical reactions that occur in a biological system. It involves two main types of pathways:

  • Catabolic pathways: These pathways break down complex molecules into simpler ones, releasing energy in the process. For example, the breakdown of glucose during cellular respiration is a catabolic process.
  • Anabolic pathways: In contrast, anabolic pathways use energy to build complex molecules from simpler ones. For example, the synthesis of protein from amino acids is an anabolic process.

Energy currency: ATP

The primary energy currency in cells is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It captures chemical energy derived from the breakdown of food molecules and releases it to fuel other cellular processes. It can be thought of as a rechargeable battery that powers cellular activities.

ATP → ADP + P i + energy

Bioenergetics: The study of energy flow

Bioenergetics is the branch of biochemistry that deals with the energy involved in the making and breaking of chemical bonds in molecules found in biological organisms. It involves understanding how living organisms manage their energy resources.

A fundamental concept in bioenergetics are the laws of thermodynamics:

  1. First Law: Energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can only be transformed from one form to another.
  2. Second Law: Every energy transfer increases the entropy (disorder) of the universe.

Energy conversion

Energy in biological systems exists in various forms - primarily chemical energy stored in the bonds of biomolecules. This energy transformation in organisms occurs in a highly efficient manner:

C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 → 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O + energy (ATP)

This is an example of cellular respiration, where glucose and oxygen are converted into carbon dioxide, water, and ATP.

SVG example of cellular respiration

sugar The O2 Inn 6 CO 2 + 6 H 2 O ATP

Metabolic pathways: complex networks

Metabolic pathways are the series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell that convert one or more substrates into products. These pathways are regulated by enzymes and hormones to ensure efficiency and balance.

Glycolysis: a major metabolic pathway

Glycolysis is the process of breaking down glucose into pyruvate. It is a sequence of ten enzyme-catalyzed reactions. It occurs in the cytoplasm and does not require oxygen, making it an anaerobic process.

Glucose → 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH

Pathway diagram example

sugar Fructose Pyruvate

Fuel for life: The Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation

Krebs cycle (citric acid cycle)

The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle, occurs in the mitochondria and is a series of reactions that generate energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA. This cycle plays a vital role in generating chemical energy.

Acetyl-CoA + 3 NAD + + FAD + GDP + P i + H2O → 2 CO2 + 3 NADH + FADH2 + GTP + CoA

Oxidative phosphorylation

It is the process by which ATP is formed as a result of the transfer of electrons from NADH or FADH 2 to O 2 by a chain of electron carriers. It occurs in mitochondria and is the major source of ATP in aerobic organisms.

Energy production flow example

NADH Electron Transport ATP

Regulation: Keeping it balanced

Metabolic pathways are highly regulated to maintain homeostasis. This balance involves a complex interplay of hormones, enzymes, and other molecules that ensure optimal functioning.

Example of regulation: insulin and glucagon

Insulin and glucagon are hormones that play a key role in regulating blood sugar levels. Insulin facilitates the absorption of glucose by cells, thereby lowering blood sugar levels, while glucagon promotes the release of glucose from liver stores when blood sugar is low.

Simple regulation mechanism

high blood sugar Insulin release Glucose uptake

Closing thoughts

Understanding metabolism and bioenergetics provides insight into the remarkable efficiency and complexity of biological systems. The chemical processes that make life possible reflect a delicate and precisely balanced orchestra of molecular interactions. Through continued study, we gain a greater understanding of the structures and reactions that fuel life itself, paving the way for advances in health, medicine, and biotechnology.


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