Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → Organic chemistry ↓


Functional Group


Introduction to functional groups

In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that have characteristic properties and chemical reactivity. They are major determinants of the properties of organic compounds. When we understand functional groups, we can predict what types of chemical reactions an organic compound can undergo. The simplest organic molecules are hydrocarbons, which contain only carbon and hydrogen. By replacing one or more hydrogen atoms with functional groups, we can obtain a huge variety of organic compounds.

Understanding functional groups

The functional group can be thought of as an atom or group of atoms that replaces hydrogen in a hydrocarbon. Often, the functional group is responsible for the chemical reactions of the molecule. For example, alcohols contain the functional group -OH (hydroxyl group), and this group is responsible for the characteristic reactions of alcohols.

Common functional groups

1. Hydroxyl group (-OH)

The hydroxyl group is characterized by an oxygen atom bonded to a hydrogen atom:

-OH

This is the defining characteristic of alcohol. Ethanol, a common alcohol, has the formula C2H5OH:

CH3CH2OH
HHeyH

2. Carbonyl group (C=O)

The carbonyl group contains a double bond between a carbon atom and an oxygen atom:

C=O

The carbonyl group is a defining feature of several functional classes, such as ketones and aldehydes.

In ketones the carbonyl group is bonded to two carbon atoms:

RC(=O)-R'

In aldehydes, at least one of the groups attached to the carbonyl carbon is a hydrogen atom:

RC(=O)H

3. Carboxyl group (-COOH)

The carboxyl group is a characteristic functional group of carboxylic acids and consists of a carbonyl group linked to a hydroxyl group:

-COOH

For example, the structural formula of acetic acid is:

CH3COOH
HCHeyHeyH

4. Amino group (-NH2)

The amino group consists of a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms and this is a characteristic of amines:

-NH2

For example, in methylamine:

CH3NH2

5. Sulfhydryl group (-SH)

The sulfhydryl group is a functional group equivalent to the hydroxyl group, containing a sulfur atom in place of an oxygen atom:

-SH

This group is characteristic of thiols, as in ethanethiol:

CH3CH2SH

6. Phosphate group (-PO4)

A phosphate group is a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms and is seen in biomolecules such as ATP:

-PO4

It plays an important role in molecular biology, as the energy currency of cells involves phosphate transfer.

Importance of functional groups

Functional groups are important for classifying organic compounds and predicting chemical reactions. By identifying the functional group, chemists can infer a lot about the molecule's properties and potential reactivity. They also provide a systematic way to name organic compounds.

For example, alcohols react differently from alkenes, even though both are made from similar hydrocarbon structures. Alcohols undergo reactions typical of the hydroxyl group, which involves oxygen and hydrogen atoms.

Naming organic compounds using functional groups

The naming of organic compounds follows a systematic naming method developed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Here, functional groups are an integral part of the naming process. The presence of a functional group is often followed by a suffix or prefix in the name of the compound:

  • Alcohol: The suffix -ol is added, e.g., ethanol.
  • Aldehyde: The suffix -al is added, for example, formaldehyde.
  • Carboxylic acids: The suffix -oic acid is added, for example, acetic acid.

Functional groups in chemical reactions

Functional groups predict how molecules react chemically. Knowing the functional group helps chemists predict what specific reactions a molecule might undergo. For example, knowing that a compound is an alcohol suggests that it might undergo oxidation reactions to form an aldehyde or ketone.

Some of the reactions involving functional groups are as follows:

  • Hydration of alkenes: Alkene C=C groups react with water in the presence of acids to form alcohols.
  • Esterification: Carboxylic acids react with alcohols to form esters and water.
  • Reduction of carbonyl: Carbonyl compounds like aldehydes and ketones can be reduced to alcohols using reducing agents like NaBH4.

Summary

Functional groups are fundamental to organic chemistry, determining the physical and chemical properties of molecules. They allow chemists to classify carbon compounds and predict how they might react in various chemical processes. Understanding functional groups is a step toward mastering organic chemistry and is important for fields as diverse as pharmaceuticals, materials science, and biochemistry.


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Functional Group

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