Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → Analytical Chemistry ↓


Instrumental methods


In the world of chemistry, it is important to know which substances make up a particular sample. This is where the field of analytical chemistry comes into play. Analytical chemistry involves various methods to identify and quantify the chemical components of both natural and synthetic materials. Among these methods, instrumental methods are crucial in providing accurate measurements and analysis. These are techniques that use instruments based on various physical and chemical principles.

Introduction to instrumental methods

Instrumental methods are important tools in the field of analytical chemistry. Unlike classical methods that rely on chemical reactions and involve complex manual operations, instrumental methods use scientific equipment to increase the speed and accuracy of analysis. They can analyze a wide variety of samples and provide both quantitative and qualitative details. So, what exactly are these methods? They include spectroscopy, chromatography, electrochemical analysis, and more.

Why are instrumental methods important?

The importance of instrumental methods comes from their ability to handle complex samples, provide high sensitivity and selectivity, and deliver results more quickly than conventional methods. With the advancement of technology, these methods have also become more accessible and easier to use. In industrial settings, they provide rapid turnaround and help with quality control as well as research and development.

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy is an instrumental method based on the interaction between light and matter. It is used to analyze the composition of substances through their spectrum. When light interacts with a chemical, it may absorb, emit, or scatter light at certain wavelengths, creating a spectrum that can be analyzed.

Types of spectroscopy

  • Ultraviolet-visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy
  • Infrared (IR) spectroscopy
  • Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy
  • Mass spectrometry (MS)

Visual example of spectroscopy

light source Analyst Sample Detectors

Chromatography

Chromatography is used to separate mixtures of substances. The basic principle involves a mobile phase that moves the sample through a stationary phase. Different components of the sample mixture will move at different rates, causing them to separate. There are different forms of chromatography, including paper, thin layer (TLC), gas (GC), and high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC).

Visual example of chromatography

mobile phase Stationary phase

Electrochemical analysis

Electrochemical analysis measures the electrical properties of a chemical system to analyze an analyte. Various methods such as potentiometry, voltammetry, and coulometry fall into this category. This method is essential in determining the concentration of ions and molecules in a solution.

Example of an electrochemical cell

        Anode (-) | Solution A | Salt Bridge | Solution B | Cathode (+) Zn(s) | ZnSO₄(aq, 1M) | KNO₃(aq) | CuSO₄(aq, 1M) | Cu(s) (Zn oxidizes to Zn²⁺ and Cu²⁺ reduces to Cu)

X-ray fluorescence (XRF)

X-ray fluorescence is a non-destructive analytical technique used to determine the elemental composition of substances. It works by irradiating a sample with X-rays, causing the material to emit fluorescent X-rays, which are characteristic of the elements present.

Visual representation of X-ray fluorescence

Sample Detectors

Example in practice: Analysis of water pollution

Imagine you are tasked with analyzing a sample of water that may be contaminated with various metals and organic contaminants. Using mechanistic methods, you can use:

  • ICP-MS (Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry): For determining trace metals.
  • GC-MS (Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry): To identify and quantify organic pollutants.
  • Ion chromatography: To measure ion concentrations in water.

Each method provides specific information that can be integrated for a comprehensive analysis of a water sample.

Conclusion

Instrumental methods in analytical chemistry are fundamental in environmental monitoring, pharmaceuticals, and food testing. Each method has its own unique advantages and application areas, and modern technological advances continue to improve their accuracy, precision, and ease of use. Understanding these methods allows chemists to perform detailed analyses and provide solutions to complex problems related to material structure.


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