Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → General chemistry → States of matter ↓


Plasma and supercritical fluid


In general chemistry, we often discuss the different states of matter, including solids, liquids, and gases. However, two other states of matter are quite fascinating: plasma and supercritical fluids. These states are rarely described in introductory courses, but they are essential to understanding advanced chemistry and physics. This lesson will study plasma and supercritical fluids in depth to provide a thorough understanding of their properties, applications, and conditions for their creation.

Plasma: The fourth state of matter

Plasma is often referred to as the fourth state of matter, separate from solids, liquids, and gases. It is a hot state where atoms in the gas ionize, meaning they lose electrons and become charged particles. This state of matter is found in abundance in the universe. In fact, stars, including the Sun, are primarily composed of plasma.

        State of Matter: Plasma

Let's visualize this transformation:

Solid liquid Gas Plasma change from solid to plasma

When a gas is heated to a very high temperature, two important changes take place:

  • The increased energy excites electrons, releasing them from atoms or molecules, forming ions.
  • The presence of free electrons and ions means that plasma can conduct electricity, unlike other states of matter.

An everyday example of plasma is a neon sign, which operates by passing an electric current through a gas at low pressure until it becomes plasma.

Properties of plasma

Plasma has some unique properties:

  • Conductivity: Due to the presence of charged particles, plasma can conduct electric currents.
  • Magnetic fields: Plasma can generate and be affected by magnetic fields due to the motion of charged particles.
  • High energy: Since plasma is formed at high temperatures, it contains a significant amount of thermal energy.

These properties distinguish plasma from other states of matter because it behaves differently under different physical conditions.

Applications of plasma

Plasma has a wide range of applications:

  • Lighting: Fluorescent and neon lights use plasma to produce light.
  • Industrial: Plasma torches cut and weld materials with precision.
  • Aerospace: Research on plasma thrusters for spacecraft propulsion is ongoing.
  • Fusion energy: Plasma controlled fusion is the focus of research, which aims to mimic the energy production processes of stars.

Supercritical fluid: Beyond gases and liquids

Supercritical fluids are not common in everyday life but are important in industrial processes. A supercritical fluid is a state of matter that occurs when a substance is above its critical temperature and pressure, where the distinction between the liquid and gas phases disappears.

        State of Matter: Supercritical Fluid

Let's use a graph to see when a fluid becomes supercritical:

critical point liquid Gas supercritical fluid Phase diagram showing supercritical fluids

The above diagram is a phase diagram, and it briefly shows how substances behave differently under different conditions. When the temperature and pressure of a substance exceeds the critical point, it enters the supercritical state. This phase has no surface tension, allowing it to penetrate substances like a gas while dissolving substances like a liquid.

Properties of supercritical fluids

Supercritical fluids blend the properties of liquids and gases:

  • Density: Equal to that of a liquid, allowing substances to dissolve.
  • Viscosity: Similar to that of a gas, allowing it to flow easily and penetrate porous materials.
  • Diffusivity: An intermediate level that allows for faster diffusion than liquids.

Due to these properties, supercritical fluids are used extensively in a variety of applications.

Applications of supercritical fluid

Supercritical fluids are used in a variety of innovative applications:

  • Extraction: Supercritical CO2 is used to extract caffeine from coffee and in the extraction of essential oils from plants.
  • Polymer Processing: Plastics aid in foaming and impregnation processes due to their unique solution properties.
  • Chemical reactions: Providing a medium for homogeneous catalysis, increasing efficiency and selectivity in chemical reactions.

These applications highlight the commercial viability and importance of supercritical fluids in industrial and chemical processes.

Conclusion

Both plasma and supercritical fluid are critical states of matter that have wide applications in science and industry. While plasma is associated with high-energy environments, supercritical fluids are known for their ability to blend liquid and gas properties. Understanding these states provides a broader view of how matter behaves under extreme conditions, demonstrating the versatility and adaptability of substances beyond their normal states.


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Plasma and supercritical fluid

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