Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → Industrial Chemistry ↓


Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis


The field of pharmaceuticals and drug synthesis is an important part of industrial chemistry that significantly affects human health and well-being. Drugs are substances used to diagnose, treat, or prevent diseases. The synthesis of drugs involves creating these compounds, often starting with simple raw materials, and refining them into effective agents that can be safely used in medical treatment.

Introduction to pharmaceuticals

Pharmaceuticals, also known as medicinal drugs, are chemicals or compounds that are created to improve health outcomes by curing, treating, or preventing medical conditions. The pharmaceutical industry is responsible for developing, producing, and marketing these drugs. The process of bringing a new drug to market is a lengthy one, involving extensive research and testing to ensure safety and efficacy.

Basic concepts of drug synthesis

Drug synthesis refers to the set of methods and techniques involved in making medicinal compounds. It combines various branches of chemistry, such as organic chemistry, analytical chemistry, and biochemistry, to design and produce compounds that can be used as drugs.

Key steps in drug synthesis

  1. Discovery and development: This is the initial phase where researchers identify and develop potential new drugs. It often involves creating new chemicals and studying their effects on biological systems. Scientists may use computational models to design new compounds.
  2. Synthesis of Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs): Once a promising compound is identified, it needs to be synthesized on a large scale. APIs are the biologically active components of drugs. Synthesis of APIs involves complex chemical reactions and is an intensive part of industrial chemistry.
  3. Formulation and testing: In this stage, the API is formulated into a product that can be administered to patients. This can be in the form of tablets, capsules, injections, etc. Rigorous tests are conducted to ensure the stability, efficacy, and safety of the formulation.
  4. Approval and production: After successful testing, regulatory approval is sought. This stage involves interaction with regulatory bodies to ensure compliance with safety standards. Once approval is granted, mass production begins.

Chemical reactions in drug synthesis

Chemistry is central to drug synthesis, and a variety of chemical reactions are used to create the desired compound. Here are some examples of common chemical reactions used in this field:

1. Substitution reaction

In a substitution reaction, one atom or group in a molecule is replaced by another atom or group. It is often used in the pharmaceutical industry to enhance the properties of a compound by modifying its structure.

R-CH2-Cl + NaOH → R-CH2-OH + NaCl
R-CH2-Cl R-CH2-OH

2. Addition reaction

In addition reactions, atoms or groups are added to a molecule. This type of reaction is useful in saturating carbon-carbon double bonds.

C2H4 + H2 → C2H6
C2H4 C2H6

3. Elimination reaction

In elimination reaction, a molecule is removed from a saturated compound to form an unsaturated compound. This reaction plays an important role in forming double or triple bonds in the compound.

C2H5OH → C2H4 + H2O
C2H5OH C2H4

Challenges in drug synthesis

Drug synthesis is fraught with many challenges that can hinder advancing a new compound from the laboratory to the marketplace. Major challenges include:

  • Complexity of drug molecules: Pharmaceutical compounds often have complex molecular structures, requiring advanced techniques to synthesize them precisely and efficiently.
  • Regulatory requirements: Regulatory bodies have stringent requirements for the safety and efficacy of pharmaceutical products, which require extensive testing and compliance.
  • Development costs: The cost of research and development of a new drug is very high. Companies invest heavily in laboratory research, clinical trials, and obtaining regulatory approval.

Importance of drug synthesis in healthcare

Drug synthesis has revolutionised healthcare by providing effective treatments for a myriad of diseases ranging from infectious diseases to chronic and lifestyle disorders. Here are some of the important milestones:

The discovery and synthesis of antibiotics such as penicillin has substantially reduced mortality from bacterial infections. Additionally, the development of antiviral drugs has improved the management and treatment of viral infections, including HIV.

Ethical and environmental considerations

The synthesis of drugs is not devoid of ethical and environmental considerations. Ensuring the sustainability of drug production processes and minimising the environmental impact through green chemistry practices is of paramount importance.

Ethical considerations are important to ensure the availability of medicines and their equitable distribution across different socio-economic groups. Clinical trials must follow ethical guidelines to protect the rights and welfare of participants.

In short, medicine and drug synthesis is a broad field that combines elements of chemistry, biology, and medicine to develop compounds that improve human health. The challenges it faces are significant, but its impact on the healthcare field makes it a very important part of industrial chemistry.


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Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis

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