Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → Industrial Chemistry ↓


Chemical engineering principles


Chemical engineering is an important discipline in industrial chemistry, focusing primarily on transforming raw materials into valuable products through chemical, physical, or biological processes. In an undergraduate chemistry program, understanding the principles of chemical engineering is essential as it lays the groundwork for industrial applications that require knowledge of process design and system operation.

Role of chemical engineering in industrial chemistry

Chemical engineers are responsible for designing, optimizing, and operating the processes that transform raw materials into final products. These processes are made efficient, economical, and safe through an understanding of various principles such as thermodynamics, fluid dynamics, heat and mass transfer, chemical kinetics, and process control.

Key chemical engineering principles

1. Thermodynamics

Thermodynamics deals with energy transformations and the physical states of materials during chemical processes. In industrial chemistry, we use the laws of thermodynamics to understand how energy is used in reactions and how to make processes energy-efficient.

For example, the first law of thermodynamics, or the law of conservation of energy, states that energy cannot be created or destroyed, but it can be converted from one form to another. This principle is important for designing processes that minimize energy waste.

2. Fluid dynamics

Fluid dynamics involves the study of moving fluids (liquids and gases). Understanding fluid flow is important for designing equipment such as pipelines, reactors, and pumps. Industrial processes, such as the transportation of reactants and products, rely heavily on fluid dynamics.

Pipe Flow

3. Heat transfer

Heat transfer is the process of transferring thermal energy from one body or substance to another. It is an important aspect of chemical engineering, used for purposes such as heating, cooling, or maintaining certain temperatures in reactors.

Consider a heat exchanger, an important industrial device that uses the principles of heat transfer to transfer heat from a hot fluid to a cold fluid, without mixing the two. A heat exchanger can be represented as:

Hot In Unconscious in the cold Hot Out

4. Mass transfer

Mass transfer involves the movement of mass from one place to another, commonly seen in processes such as distillation, extraction, and drying. Chemical engineers design equipment and processes that optimize mass transfer to increase efficiency and product yield.

5. Chemical kinetics

Chemical kinetics studies the rate of reactions and how it is affected by various factors such as temperature, pressure, and concentration. Understanding kinetics is important for designing reactors in industrial chemistry and optimizing reaction conditions, making processes more efficient.

For example, raising the temperature often increases the reaction rate because more energy is available for collisions between reactant molecules. The rate equation for the simple reaction A -> B is given as:

r = k[a]

6. Process control and instrumentation

Process control involves regulating conditions such as temperature, pressure, and flow rates during chemical production to ensure safety and efficiency. Instrumentation provides the necessary data by using sensors and other devices to monitor process parameters.

Gauge Meter

Applications in industrial chemistry

Industrial chemistry involves large-scale chemical processes where principles of chemical engineering are applied to produce a wide range of products such as petrochemicals, pharmaceuticals, polymers, and food products. Each of these industries uses chemical engineering principles in unique and customized ways to improve efficiency and product quality while reducing costs and environmental impact.

Example: ammonia synthesis

The synthesis of ammonia by the Haber-Bosch process is a classic example of the application of chemical engineering principles. This process combines nitrogen and hydrogen directly under high temperature and pressure to produce ammonia, a precursor to fertilizers.

N 2 + 3H 2 ⇌ 2NH 3

The main points in this process are as follows:

  • Thermodynamics: The equilibrium of a reaction is affected by temperature and pressure.
  • Kinetics: Catalysts are used to increase the reaction rate.
  • Heat and mass transfer: Efficient design to optimize these transfers to reduce energy costs and increase yield.

Example: petroleum refining

Petroleum refining is another complex process that requires a comprehensive understanding of chemical engineering principles. It involves separating crude oil and converting it into useful products such as gasoline, diesel, and lubricants. The following are used in the refining process:

  • Distillation (mass transfer): Separates components based on boiling point.
  • Cracking (chemical kinetics): breaks down larger hydrocarbons into smaller, more useful hydrocarbons.
  • Heat exchange: This involves various heat transfer processes to recycle energy.

Conclusion

Understanding chemical engineering principles is essential for chemists working in industrial environments. These principles guide the design and operation of chemical processes, ensuring they are safe, efficient, and sustainable. From energy conservation in thermodynamics to the complexities of process control, the synergy of these principles helps drive industrial innovation in many fields.


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