Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate ↓


Analytical Chemistry


Analytical chemistry is a branch of chemistry that involves analyzing samples of materials to understand their chemical composition and structure. It's a vital field of science, providing essential methods and tools for everything from environmental monitoring to drug development. Let's take a deeper dive into this fascinating field of study, exploring its methods, applications, and its role in scientific discovery.

Fundamental concepts

Analytical chemistry is essentially concerned with the identification and quantification of the chemical components of substances. In this context, there are two broad categories: qualitative analysis and quantitative analysis.

Qualitative analysis

Qualitative analysis is used to determine which substances are present in a sample. For example, let's say you have a mixture of different salts, and you want to know what kind of ions are in the mixture. Various tests can be performed to identify ions such as Na +, Cl -, SO 4 2- etc. These tests may involve chemical reactions that produce color changes, precipitates, or gases that indicate the presence of particular ions.

Quantitative analysis

Quantitative analysis, on the other hand, determines how much of a substance is present. Continuing the previous example, now that you know which ions are in your sample, you may want to calculate their exact concentrations. Instruments such as titration, gravimetric analysis, or spectrometers can be used for such purposes.

Key techniques and tools

Titration

Titration is a common laboratory method used for quantitative chemical analysis to determine the concentration of an identified analyte. An example of this is the acid-base titration, where an acid reacts with a base until it is neutralized. A well-known reaction would be:

HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H 2 O (l)

In this process, a pH indicator is often used to visually indicate the end point of the reaction, which is usually marked by a color change.

Titration curveBaseAcid

Chromatography

Chromatography is another essential analytical technique often used to separate components in a mixture. This method exploits differences in the speed of different substances across a stationary phase, often a column or a layer of paper. An example of this is paper chromatography, which can be used to separate different pigments based on their solubility in a particular solvent.

Spectroscopy

Spectroscopy refers to the study of how electromagnetic radiation interacts with matter. It includes methods such as mass spectrometry, infrared spectroscopy, and UV-Vis spectroscopy. Let's examine UV-Vis spectroscopy, which analyzes light absorption in the ultraviolet and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A common use is to determine the concentration of a substance by applying the Beer-Lambert law:

A = εlc

where A is the absorption capacity, ε is the molar absorption capacity, l is the path length, and c is the concentration of the solution.

Visual example of the Beer-Lambert experiment setup

Samplelight pathDetectors

Applications of analytical chemistry

Analytical chemistry has applications in numerous areas. For example:

  • Environmental analysis: Monitoring air and water quality by identifying and quantifying pollutants.
  • Pharmaceutical industry: Ensuring the safety and efficacy of drugs by analyzing their chemical composition and impurities.
  • Food industry: Detecting contaminants in food products to ensure they conform to safety regulations.
  • Forensic science: Analyzing substances found at crime scenes to identify materials and link evidence.

Challenges and future trends

The field of analytical chemistry is constantly evolving, as technology expands its scope and precision. Challenges include dealing with complex sample matrices, increasing sensitivity and specificity, and ensuring accuracy in microscopic-level analyses. Future trends may include miniaturization, automation, and developments in computational techniques that integrate artificial intelligence for data interpretation.

Conclusion

Analytical chemistry is indispensable in modern science, providing the methods and equipment necessary for careful and accurate chemical analysis. As technology advances, the techniques and applications of analytical chemistry will continue to expand, playing a vital role in scientific discovery and industrial process control.


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Analytical Chemistry

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