Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → Physical chemistry ↓


Surface chemistry


Surface chemistry is the study of the chemical processes that occur at interfaces between phases, especially solid-liquid, solid-gas, solid-vacuum, and liquid-gas interfaces. It plays a vital role in a variety of industrial processes, including the creation of catalysts, materials, drug delivery systems, and more. Understanding the fundamentals of surface chemistry is critical for the development of new technologies and innovations.

Historical background

The foundations of surface chemistry were laid in the early 20th century, primarily through the work of scientists such as Paul Ehrlich and Irving Langmuir. Langmuir was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1932 specifically for his pioneering research in surface chemistry. His work led to the development of the Langmuir isotherm, a model that describes the adsorption of molecules on solid surfaces.

Basic concepts

To understand surface chemistry it is necessary to start with some key concepts:

Phase interfaces

In chemistry, an interface is a boundary between two phases. For example, the surface of a liquid is the boundary between the liquid phase and the gas phase (often air). In surface chemistry, we are primarily concerned with the molecular interactions that occur at these interfaces.

Adsorption

Adsorption is the process by which atoms, ions, or molecules from a gas, liquid, or dissolved solid become attached to a surface. It is distinct from absorption, where a substance diffuses into a liquid or solid to form a solution. Adsorption is usually described as an isotherm, adding an amount of adsorbent to the adsorbent at a constant temperature depending on its pressure or concentration.

Example of adsorption: Activated charcoal used in gas masks adsorbs toxic gases onto its surface, removing them from the air we breathe.

Catalysis

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by involving a substance called a catalyst, which is not consumed in the reaction. In surface chemistry, heterogeneous catalysis occurs when the catalyst is in a different phase than the reactants, usually solid-gas or solid-liquid.

Types of adsorption

Adsorption may be classified into two main categories depending upon the nature of forces involved:

Physical adsorption (physisorption)

Physisorption is characterized by weak van der Waals forces between the adsorbent and the surface. It occurs at relatively low temperatures and is usually reversible. The adsorbent molecules are loosely bound and can be easily desorbed by increasing the temperature or decreasing the pressure.

P + S ⇌ PS

In this equation, P represents the physisorbed molecule, S represents the surface, and PS represents the physisorbed state.

Chemical adsorption (chemisorption)

Chemical adsorption involves the formation of strong chemical bonds between the adsorbent and the surface. This usually occurs at high temperatures and is often irreversible. The adsorbent molecules are tightly bound to the surface, and in some cases, this process facilitates subsequent chemical reactions.

C + S ⟶ CS

In this equation, C represents the chemisorbed molecule, S represents the surface, and CS represents the chemisorbed state.

Adsorption isotherm

Adsorption isotherms describe how the amount of adsorbent on an adsorbent changes with pressure or concentration at a constant temperature. Several mathematical models are used to describe these isotherms, including:

Langmuir isotherm

The Langmuir isotherm assumes monolayer adsorption on a homogeneous surface with a finite number of adsorption sites. The model is given by the equation:

θ = (bP) / (1 + bP)

where θ is the surface coverage, b is the Langmuir adsorption constant, and P is the adsorption pressure.

Visual representation of the Langmuir isotherm:

Freundlich isotherm

The Freundlich isotherm is an empirical model that assumes that adsorption occurs on a heterogeneous surface. It is expressed as:

q = Kf * C^(1/n)

Where q is the amount of adsorbent adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent, Kf is the Freundlich constant, C is the concentration of the adsorbent, and 1/n is a constant indicating the adsorption intensity.

BET isotherm

The BET (Brunauer, Emmett and Taylor) isotherm extends the Langmuir model to multilayer adsorption. It is often used to determine the surface area of powders and porous materials. The equation is expressed as:

1/((P/PO) * (1-P/PO)) = (1/(VM * C)) + ((C-1)/(VM * C)) * (P/PO)

where P is the pressure, Po is the saturated pressure, Vm is the monolayer volume, and C is the BET constant.

Applications of surface chemistry

Catalysis

One of the most important applications of surface chemistry is in catalysis. Catalysts provide an active surface for reactions to occur more efficiently. For example, in the Haber process for ammonia production, iron is used as a heterogeneous catalyst to increase the efficiency of the reactants.

Catalyst example: In cars, catalytic converters use platinum, palladium and rhodium to convert harmful gases from the engine's exhaust into less harmful substances. The catalyst surface speeds up the reaction that converts carbon monoxide (CO) into carbon dioxide (CO2).

Physics

Surface chemistry is integral to developing new materials with specific properties such as adhesion, wetting and corrosion resistance. These properties are important in a variety of industries, including electronics, aerospace and construction.

Nano

Nanoscale materials often rely on surface properties due to their high surface area-to-volume ratio. Principles of surface chemistry are used to manipulate these surface properties, allowing the development of nanomaterials with unique electrical, mechanical, and optical properties.

Biological systems

The study of surface chemistry is important in understanding biological systems, such as the interactions of cell membranes and drug delivery mechanisms. The surfaces of biomolecules often control key physiological processes.

Factors affecting adsorption

Nature of adsorbate and adsorbent

The nature of the adsorbent and the adsorbate significantly affect adsorption. Factors such as chemical nature, polarity and surface area are important. For example, activated carbon has a large surface area and is effective in adsorbing various gases and impurities.

Temperature

The effect of temperature on adsorption can vary. Generally, physical adsorption decreases with an increase in temperature because the kinetic energy increases, causing the adsorbed molecules to be desorbed. On the other hand, chemical adsorption may initially increase with temperature but eventually lead to desorption beyond a certain point.

Pressure

For gaseous adsorbates, increasing the pressure usually increases adsorption initially, because more molecules are available to occupy surface sites. After a certain point, adsorption reaches a saturation point where additional increases in pressure have no significant effect on adsorption.

Surface area

The larger the surface area of the adsorbent, the more adsorption sites are available, leading to higher adsorption. This factor is particularly relevant in materials such as activated carbon and silica gel.

Experimental techniques

A number of experimental techniques are used to study surface chemistry, including:

Surface area measurement

The BET method is commonly used to determine the surface area of porous materials. It involves measuring the amount of gas adsorbed on the surface at different relative pressures.

Spectroscopy

Techniques such as X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and infrared (IR) spectroscopy can provide information about the chemical composition and functional groups present on a surface.

Microscopy

Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) are used to study the surface topography and morphology at high resolution.

Example representation of surface topography:

Conclusion

Surface chemistry is an important field that bridges the gap between physical chemistry and practical applications in a variety of industries. Understanding molecular interactions at phase interfaces allows chemists and engineers to design more efficient processes and develop new materials. As research continues and technology advances, insights gained from surface chemistry will contribute to solving complex challenges in energy production, environmental protection, and healthcare.


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Surface chemistry

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