Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → Organic chemistry → Functional Group ↓


Alcohols and phenols


Alcohols and phenols are important classes of organic compounds that are widely studied in undergraduate chemistry. They play important roles in many biological systems and industrial processes. Understanding their structure, properties, and reactions is fundamental for any chemistry student. Let's explore the characteristics and chemistry of these fascinating compounds.

Structure and nomenclature

Alcohols are organic compounds characterized by the presence of one or more hydroxyl (-OH) groups attached to a carbon atom. The general formula of alcohols can be written as R-OH, where R denotes an alkyl or substituted alkyl group.

R -Oh

On the other hand, phenols are a special class of alcohols in which the hydroxyl group is directly attached to the aromatic benzene ring. The simplest phenol is often just called phenol, with the formula C6H5OH.

benzene -Oh

Naming of alcohols

The IUPAC rules for naming alcohols involve the following steps:

  1. Select the longest carbon chain containing a hydroxyl group; the name of the parent alkane is modified by replacing -e ending with -ol.
  2. Number the chain from the end nearest the hydroxyl group; specify the position of the hydroxyl group using the appropriate number.
  3. Indicate the substituents and their position on the chain.

For example, consider an alcohol with the structural formula:

    CH3-CH(OH)-CH2-CH3

The longest chain including -OH has four carbons (butane), so it is renamed butanol. The number from the end closest to -OH gives you 2-butanol.

Nomenclature of phenol

Phenols are named by adding the word phenol to any group that is substituted on the benzene ring. The position of the substituents on the benzene ring is indicated using the ortho (1,2-), meta (1,3-), or para (1,4-) system or by numbering the carbon atoms in the ring.

For example, ortho-cresol is a phenol that has a methyl group adjacent to the hydroxyl group.

Physical properties

Alcohol

Alcohols have a variety of physical properties due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with water and themselves. This makes them polar molecules.

  • Lower alcohols are usually in the liquid state at room temperature, while higher alcohols may be in the solid state.
  • Due to hydrogen bonding, their boiling point is relatively higher than that of hydrocarbons of similar molecular weight.
  • Alcohols can evaporate more slowly than ethers or alkanes.

Phenol

Phenols have higher melting and boiling points than similar aromatics. This is also due to strong hydrogen bonding.

  • Phenols are often less volatile than alcohols because of stronger interactions with the aromatic ring.
  • They generally exhibit weak acidity, due in part to resonance stabilization of the phenoxide ion produced upon loss of hydrogen.

Chemical reactions

Reactions to alcohol

Alcohol can undergo a variety of chemical changes. Some common reactions are:

1. Oxidation

Primary alcohols (R-CH2-OH) can be oxidized to aldehydes and then to carboxylic acids, while secondary alcohols (R1-CHOH-R2) are oxidized to ketones. Tertiary alcohols are generally not easily oxidized.

    RCH2OH + [O] → RCHO + [O] → RCOOH

2. Dehydration

Heat and acidic conditions can cause dehydration of alcohols to form alkenes:

    RCH2CH2OH → RCH=CH2 + H2O

3. Esterification

Alcohols react with carboxylic acids to form esters and water in an acid-catalyzed process.

    RCOOH + R'OH ⇌ RCOOR' + H2O

Reactions of phenol

Phenols undergo a variety of reactions that reflect their distinctive structure and acidic nature.

1. Acidity

Phenols are slightly acidic in solution, ionizing to form phenoxide ions:

    C6H5OH ⇌ C6H5O- + H+

2. Electrophilic aromatic substitution

Phenols readily undergo electrophilic aromatic substitution due to the activating effect of the hydroxyl group.

    C6H5OH + HNO3 → C6H4OH(NO2) + H2O

These reactions usually occur at the ortho and para positions relative to the hydroxyl group.

Applications of alcohols and phenols

Alcohols and phenols have a wide range of applications. They are basic compounds in organic synthesis and are important in everyday life:

Alcohol

  • Solvent: Ethanol and methanol are widely used as solvents in laboratories and industries.
  • Fuel: Ethanol is used as a biofuel in gasoline.
  • Antiseptics: Alcohols such as isopropanol are commonly used as antiseptics.
  • Beverages: Ethanol is the primary alcohol component in beverages.

Phenol

  • Disinfectant: Phenol has antimicrobial properties, which is used in disinfectants.
  • Industrial precursors: used to synthesize plastics such as Bakelite.
  • Drugs: Derivatives are used in various medicinal compounds.

Conclusion

Alcohols and phenols constitute important areas of organic chemistry due to their versatile structures and reactivity. Their interactions and reactions have significant implications in industrial processes, laboratory settings, and daily life applications. By understanding the characteristics of these compounds, we can manipulate them to better serve technological and scientific advancements in many fields.


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Alcohols and phenols

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