Undergraduate
  1. General chemistry  1.1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.2. Atomic Structure  1.2.1. Subatomic particles  1.2.2. Atomic Model  1.2.3. Quantum numbers  1.2.4. Electron Configuration  1.2.5. Periodic trends  1.2.6. Isotopes and their applications  1.3. Chemical bond  1.3.1. Ionic bond  1.3.2. Covalent bonds  1.3.3. Metal Bond  1.3.4. Hybridization  1.3.5. Molecular geometry and VSEPR theory  1.3.6. Bond polarity and dipole moment  1.4. Stoichiometry  1.4.1. Mole concept  1.4.2. Empirical and molecular formula  1.4.3. Limiting reactant and excess reactant  1.4.4. Percent Yield and Purity  1.4.5. Dilution calculation  1.5. States of matter  1.5.1. Gas Laws  1.5.2. Matter and Intermolecular Forces  1.5.3. Solid and Crystal Structures  1.5.4. Phase diagram  1.5.5. Plasma and supercritical fluid  1.6. Chemical reactions  1.6.1. Types of Chemical Reactions  1.6.2. Balancing Chemical Equations  1.6.3. Thermochemical reactions  1.6.4. Reaction energy profiles  1.7. Solutions and Mixtures  1.7.1. Concentration units  1.7.2. Syndrome properties  1.7.3. Solubility and Solubility Rules  1.7.4. Henry's Law and Raoult's Law  1.7.5. Partition coefficient  1.8. Chemical equilibrium  1.8.1. Law of mass action  1.8.2. Le Chatelier's principle  1.8.3. Reaction quotient  1.8.4. To use this online calculator for Equilibrium Constant, enter Equilibrium Constant (Eq.) and hit the calculate button. Here is how the Equilibrium Constant calculation can be explained with given input values -> 0.05 = 0.05/0.  1.8.5. Acid-base balance  1.9. Acids and bases  1.9.1. Arrhenius, Brønsted–Lowry, and Lewis definitions  1.9.2. pH and pOH  1.9.3. Acid-base titration  1.9.4. Buffer Solution  1.9.5. Acid-base indicator  1.9.6. Polyprotic Acids and Bases  1.10. Electrochemistry  1.10.1. redox reactions  1.10.2. Galvanic and Electrolytic Cells  1.10.3. Nernst equation  1.10.4. Electrolysis  1.10.5. Faraday's laws of electrolysis  1.11. Thermodynamics  1.11.1. Laws of Thermodynamics  1.11.2. Enthalpy, entropy and Gibbs free energy  1.11.3. Spontaneity of reactions  1.11.4. Thermodynamic cycles (Hess's law, Carnot cycle)  1.12. Kinetics  1.12.1. Rate law and reaction order  1.12.2. Activation Energy and Catalyst  1.12.3. Collision theory  1.12.4. Reaction mechanism  1.12.5. Transition state theory
  2. Organic chemistry  2.1. Structure and relationships  2.1.1. Hybridisation in Carbon Compounds  2.1.2. Resonance and aromatization  2.1.3. Molecular orbitals  2.1.4. Inductive and mesomeric effects  2.2. Hydrocarbons  2.2.1. Hydrocarbons  2.2.2. Alkene  2.2.3. Alkynes  2.2.4. Aromatic compounds  2.2.5. Cycloalkanes and Conformation  2.3. Functional Group  2.3.1. Alcohols and phenols  2.3.2. Ethers and epoxides  2.3.3. Aldehyde and ketone  2.3.4. Carboxylic acids and derivatives  2.3.5. Amin  2.3.6. Esters and amides  2.3.7. Thiols and sulfides  2.4. Stereoscopic  2.4.1. Isomerism in Stereochemistry  2.4.2. Chirality and optical activity  2.4.3. Structural analysis  2.4.4. Diastereomers and Enantiomers  2.5.1. Substitution reactions  2.5.2. Elimination reactions  2.5.3. Addition reactions  2.5.4. Radical reactions  2.5.5. Rearrangement reactions  2.5.6. Pericyclic Reactions  2.6. Spectroscopy and structural analysis  2.6.1. Infrared Spectroscopy  2.6.2. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy  2.6.3. Mass Spectrometry  2.6.4. UV-visible spectroscopy  2.6.5. X-ray crystallography  2.7. Polymer chemistry  2.7.1. Addition and Condensation Polymers  2.7.2. Polymerization mechanism  2.7.3. Biodegradable Polymer  2.7.4. Conducting and smart polymers
  3. Inorganic chemistry  3.1. Coordination chemistry  3.1.1. Ligands and coordination compounds  3.1.2. Crystal field theory  3.1.3. Molecular Orbital Theory in Coordination Compounds  3.1.4. Jahn–Taylor distortion  3.2. Main Group Chemistry  3.2.1. Alkali and alkaline earth metals  3.2.2. Halogens and Noble Gases  3.2.3. Transition metals and their complexes  3.2.4. Lanthanides and Actinides  3.3. Solid state chemistry  3.3.1. Crystal lattices and unit cells  3.3.2. Defects in solids  3.3.3. Electrical and magnetic properties  3.3.4. Superconductivity  3.4. Bio-inorganic chemistry  3.4.1. Metal ions in biology  3.4.2. Enzymatic reactions with metals  3.4.3. Metal poisoning and detoxification  3.4.4. Metalloproteins and Metalloenzymes
  4. Physical chemistry  4.1. Quantum Chemistry  4.1.1. Wave–particle duality  4.1.2. Schrödinger Equation  4.1.3. Quantum Numbers and Orbitals  4.1.4. Atomic and molecular spectroscopy  4.2. Statistical mechanics  4.2.1. Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution  4.2.2. Partitioning functions  4.2.3. Bose–Einstein and Fermi–Dirac statistics  4.3. Chemical thermodynamics  4.3.1. Gibbs Free Energy  4.3.2. Phase transition  4.3.3. Thermodynamic efficiency  4.4. Surface chemistry  4.4.1. Absorption and Catalysis  4.4.2. Colloids and Emulsions
  5. Analytical Chemistry  5.1. Classical methods  5.1.1. Gravimetric Analysis  5.1.2. titrimeter  5.2. Instrumental methods  5.2.1. Chromatography  5.2.2. Spectroscopy  5.2.3. Electroanalytical methods  5.2.4. X-ray diffraction
  6. Industrial Chemistry  6.1. Petrochemistry  6.2. Chemical engineering principles  6.3. Green Chemistry  6.4. Pharmaceuticals and Drug Synthesis
  7. Biochemistry  7.1. Carbohydrates  7.2. Proteins and enzymes  7.3. Lipids and membranes  7.4. Nucleic acids  7.5. Metabolism and Bioenergetics  7.6. Enzyme kinetics and mechanism

Undergraduate → General chemistry → Atomic Structure ↓


Subatomic particles


The study of subatomic particles is important for understanding atomic structure in general chemistry. Atoms are the basic building blocks of matter, and they are composed of smaller, more fundamental units called subatomic particles. At the core of atomic theory are three elementary subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Atomic structure

An atom consists of a nucleus surrounded by an electron cloud. Here is a simple visual example of the atomic model:

In the example above, the red dot in the middle represents the nucleus, which contains both protons and neutrons. The blue dot represents the electron orbiting around the nucleus.

Proton

Protons are positively charged particles found in the nucleus of an atom. Each proton has a charge of +1 and a relative mass of about 1 atomic mass unit (amu). The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom determines the atomic number of the element, which is unique for each element.

Example: Hydrogen has 1 proton, so its atomic number is 1.

Neutron

Neutrons are neutral particles, with no charge, and they are also located in the nucleus of the atom. The relative mass of neutrons is close to that of protons, about 1 amu. They help stabilize the nucleus by balancing the repulsion forces between the positively charged protons.

Example: Carbon-12 has 6 protons and 6 neutrons.

Electrons

Electrons are negatively charged particles with a charge of -1, orbiting around the nucleus in various energy levels or shells. They are much lighter than protons and neutrons, with a mass of about 1/1836 amu. Electrons play an important role in chemical bonding and the reactivity of elements.

Example: Oxygen has a total of 8 electrons.

Atomic number and mass number

The atomic number refers to the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom. The mass number is the total number of protons and neutrons. For example, if an atom has 6 protons and 6 neutrons, its mass number is 12.

Example: Boron has atomic number 5 and usually has mass number 11 (5 protons + 6 neutrons).

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. This results in atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers.

Example: Carbon-12 and carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon.

In the example above, the different positions of the red dots within the nucleus represent isotopes with different numbers of neutrons.

Electron configuration

Understanding electron configuration is important to understand how atoms interact and connect with each other. Electrons are arranged in shells or energy levels around the nucleus. The order in which these shells are filled is based on increasing energy levels.

Example: The electron configuration of neon is 1s² 2s² 2p⁶.

Quantum mechanics and atomic structure

The behavior of subatomic particles is described by quantum mechanics. Unlike classical mechanics, quantum mechanics takes into account the wave-particle duality of electrons. Electrons occupy regions of space, called orbitals, which are probability distributions, rather than fixed orbits.

In this view, regions of different shapes are shown, representing the different possible orbitals where the electrons could be located.

Periodic table and subatomic particles

The elements in the periodic table are arranged according to increasing atomic number. This arrangement reflects a repeating pattern of chemical behavior due to the valence electrons, which are the electrons in the outermost shell.

Example: Group 1 elements are alkali metals, which have 1 valence electron, which they lose in reactions.

Subatomic particles in chemical reactions

Chemical reactions involve the rearrangement of electrons, leading to the formation or breaking of chemical bonds. The nucleus is mostly unaffected in these reactions, while the electrons in the outermost shell are the main participants.

Example: NaCl formation involves transfer of 1 electron from Na to Cl.

Conservation of mass and charge

The law of conservation of mass and the law of conservation of charge must be obeyed in chemical reactions. This means that the total mass and charge remain unchanged before and after the reaction.

Example: Balancing the equation of a simple reaction like H₂ + O₂ → H₂O ensures conservation of mass and charge.

Conclusion

Understanding subatomic particles is essential in exploring the atomic structure and behavior of matter. Protons and neutrons give atoms their mass, while electrons give them their chemical properties. Together, these particles determine the vast range of chemical behavior and make the complex world of chemistry understandable.

The study of these particles helps us understand not only the nature and behaviour of elements but also the underlying principles governing the interactions and transformations that contribute to all physical phenomena.


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Subatomic particles

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