Grade 9
  1. Matter and its nature  1.1. Introduction to matter  1.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  1.3. States of matter  1.3.1. Solid state  1.3.2. Fluid state  1.3.3. Gaseous state  1.3.4. Plasma and Bose–Einstein condensate  1.4. Changes in the states of matter  1.4.1. Melting and freezing  1.4.2. Evaporation and Condensation  1.4.3. Sublimation and deposition  1.5. Classification of matter  1.6. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures  1.7. Pure substances and impurities  1.8. Separation Techniques  1.8.1. Filtration  1.8.2. Distillation  1.8.3. Crystallization  1.8.4. Chromatography  1.8.5. Centrifugation  1.8.6. Sublimation  1.8.7. Decantation and sedimentation
  2. Atomic Structure  2.1. Discovery of atoms  2.2. Dalton's atomic theory  2.3. Structure of the atom  2.4. Subatomic particles  2.5. Atomic number and mass number  2.6. Isotopes and Isobars  2.7. Electronic configuration  2.8. Bohr's atomic model  2.9. Modern Atomic Model (Quantum Mechanical Model - Introduction)  2.10. Valency and chemical bonding
  3. C hemical reactions and equations  3.1. Introduction to Chemical Reactions  3.2. Chemical Equation Formulation  3.3. Balancing Chemical Equations  3.4. Types of Chemical Reactions  3.4.1. Combination Reactions  3.4.2. Decomposition reactions  3.4.3. Displacement reactions  3.4.4. Double displacement reactions  3.4.5. Redox reactions  3.4.6. Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions  3.5. Effects of chemical reactions  3.6. Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions  3.7. Catalysts and their role in reactions
  4. Periodic table and periodicity  4.1. History of Periodic Classification  4.2. Mendeleev's periodic table  4.3. Modern Periodic Table  4.4. Periods and groups in the periodic table and periodicity  4.5. Trends in the Periodic Table  4.5.1. Atomic size  4.5.2. Ionization Energy  4.5.3. Electron affinity  4.5.4. Electronegativity  4.5.5. Metallic and Non-Metallic Properties  4.6. Noble gases and their properties
  5. Chemical bond  5.1. Introduction to Chemical Bonding  5.2. Types of chemical bonds  5.2.1. Ionic bond  5.2.2. Covalent bond  5.2.3. Metallic bond  5.2.4. Hydrogen bonding  5.2.5. Van der Waals force  5.3. Properties of Ionic and Covalent Compounds  5.4. Molecular Structure and Geometry (VSEPR Theory - Basics)
  6. Acids, Bases and Salts  6.1. Introduction to Acids and Bases  6.2. Properties of Acids  6.3. Properties of bases  6.4. pH scale and its importance  6.5. Indicators and their uses  6.6. Neutralization reactions  6.7. Strength of Acids and Bases (Strong vs. Weak)  6.8. Preparation of salts  6.9. Uses of acids, bases and salts in daily life
  7. Metals and Nonmetals  7.1. Physical Properties of Metals  7.2. Physical Properties of Nonmetals  7.3. Chemical properties of metals  7.4. Chemical Properties of Nonmetals  7.5. Reactivity Series of Metals  7.6. Extraction of metals  7.7. Corrosion and its prevention  7.8. uses of metals and nonmetals
  8. Carbon and its compounds  8.1. Introduction to Carbon  8.2. Allotropes of carbon (diamond, graphite, fullerene)  8.3. Hydrocarbons  8.3.1. Hydrocarbons  8.3.2. Alkene  8.3.3. Alkynes  8.4. Functional groups in organic chemistry  8.5. Isomerism in organic compounds  8.6. Alcohols and Carboxylic Acids  8.7. Soaps and detergents  8.8. Polymers (Introduction to Natural and Synthetic Polymers)
  9. Solutions and Mixtures  9.1. Types of mixtures  9.2. Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Mixtures  9.3. Concentration of solutions  9.4. Solubility and factors affecting solubility  9.5. Suspensions and Colloids  9.6. Saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions
  10. Air and atmosphere  10.1. Composition of air  10.2. Role of gases in the atmosphere  10.4. Acid rain and its effects  10.5. Greenhouse effect and global warming  10.6. Ozone layer and its depletion  10.7. Air pollution control measures
  11. Water and its importance  11.1. Composition and properties of water  11.2. Hardness of water (temporary and permanent hardness)  11.3. Causes of water pollution  11.4. Effects of Water Pollution  11.5. Water purification methods (filtration, boiling, chlorination)
  12. Industrial Chemistry  12.1. Introduction to Industrial Chemistry  12.2. Important industrial chemicals (sulfuric acid, ammonia, sodium hydroxide)  12.3. Chemical processes in industry  12.4. Uses of Industrial Chemistry in Daily Life  12.5. Environmental impact of industrial chemical processes

Grade 9 ↓


Carbon and its compounds


Carbon is a very important element in chemistry. It is found in various compounds in nature. This makes it a fundamental topic in the study of chemistry, especially when it comes to understanding life on Earth. Let's learn in detail about the characteristics, properties and compounds of carbon.

Properties of carbon

Carbon is an element with the symbol C and atomic number 6. It belongs to group 14 of the periodic table. Some important properties of carbon are as follows:

  • Atomic structure: The nucleus of carbon contains 6 protons and usually 6 neutrons, and 6 electrons orbiting around it. Its electronic configuration is 1s 2 2s 2 2p 2.
  • Abundance: Carbon is the fourth most abundant element in the universe by mass, and the 15th most abundant element in the Earth's crust.
  • Allotropes: Carbon occurs in several forms, known as allotropes, including diamond, graphite, and fullerenes.
  • Valency: Carbon has a valency of 4, which means it can form four covalent bonds with other atoms.

Allotropes of carbon

Carbon's ability to exist in different forms is due to its unique bonding properties. Here are some common allotropes of carbon:

Diamond

Diamond is one of the hardest natural substances. Each carbon atom forms four strong covalent bonds with other carbon atoms in a three-dimensional tetrahedral structure.

Graphite

Graphite is made up of layers of carbon atoms arranged in a hexagonal structure. Each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms, allowing the layers to slide easily over each other, making graphite a good lubricant.

Layer 1 Layer 2

Fullerenes

Fullerenes, such as buckyballs and carbon nanotubes, are composed of carbon atoms arranged in spherical, tubular, or ellipsoidal shapes.

Properties of carbon

Carbon has a variety of physical and chemical properties that make it a versatile element in forming compounds:

Physical properties

  • Density: Carbon in the form of diamond is very dense, while graphite is less dense.
  • Hardness: Diamond is incredibly hard, while graphite is soft and slippery.
  • Conductivity: Graphite is a good conductor of electricity due to the free movement of electrons between the layers. However, diamond is an electrical insulator.

Chemical properties

  • Chain linkage: Carbon atoms can bond to form long chains and rings, giving rise to a large number of organic compounds.
  • Combustion: When carbon burns in air, it reacts with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and release energy.
  • Reaction with other elements: Carbon reacts with many elements to form a variety of compounds, including carbonates, carbides, and halides.

Carbon compounds

Carbon easily forms compounds with other elements, resulting in millions of organic and inorganic compounds. Let's explore some categories of carbon compounds.

Organic compounds

Organic compounds are composed primarily of carbon and hydrogen, and they are the basis of all known life. They are classified into different types based on their functional groups:

Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, containing only carbon and hydrogen. They are divided into:

  • Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons containing single covalent bonds. General formula: C n H 2n+2. Example: methane (CH 4).
  • Alkenes: Unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one double bond. General formula: C n H 2n. Example: ethene (C 2 H 4).
  • Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond. General formula: C n H 2n-2. Example: ethyne (C 2 H 2).

Alcohols

Alcohols contain one or more hydroxyl (OH) groups. Example: ethanol (C 2 H 5 OH).

Carboxylic acids

Compounds containing carboxyl group (COOH). They are known for their acidic property. Example: acetic acid (CH 3 COOH).

Inorganic carbon compounds

Carbon also forms important inorganic compounds. Some key examples include:

Carbon dioxide

CO2: A colorless gas produced by the combustion of carbon-containing substances and the respiration of animals.

Carbon monoxide

CO: A colorless and toxic gas produced by incomplete combustion of carbon.

Carbonates

Compounds containing carbonate ion (CO 3 2-). Example: calcium carbonate (CaCO 3).

The range and versatility of carbon

Catenation is the ability of carbon atoms to join together to form long chains and rings. This property is fundamental to the versatility of carbon, which allows it to form a variety of complex structures.

Applications of carbon compounds

Carbon compounds are important in a wide range of applications, from everyday objects to industrial processes and advanced technologies.

Fuels

Hydrocarbons such as methane, propane and butane are used as fuel for cooking, heating and to run engines.

Medicines

Many medicines are organic compounds, including painkillers, antibiotics, and antiseptics.

Plastics

Plastics such as polyethylene and polystyrene are polymers made from carbon-containing monomers. They have countless uses in packaging, construction, and consumer goods.

Environmental impact of carbon compounds

Although carbon is essential for life, some carbon compounds can have significant effects on the environment:

Greenhouse gases

Carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases that trap heat in the atmosphere, contributing to global warming.

Pollution

Carbon monoxide is a harmful pollutant produced by the incomplete combustion of carbon compounds.

Conclusion

Carbon and its compounds are vital to life and the environment. Understanding the chemistry of carbon helps us explore its myriad uses, from fueling vehicles to building biological molecules. While it brings a lot of benefits, it is essential to use it responsibly to minimize its environmental impacts.


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