Grade 8
  1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.1. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.2. Importance of chemistry in daily life  1.3. Chemistry and its relation with other sciences  1.4. The role of chemistry in industry, medicine and the environment  1.5. Scientific investigation and experimental methods in chemistry
  2. Matter and its properties  2.1. Definition and classification of matter  2.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  2.3. Law of conservation of matter  2.4. Extensive and Intensive Properties of Matter  2.5. Kinetic molecular theory of matter  2.6. States of matter: solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and Bose-Einstein condensates  2.7. Changes in state and energy are involved  2.8. Diffusion and Brownian motion
  3. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures  3.1. Definition and differences between elements, compounds, and mixtures  3.2. Atomic Structure and Atomic Number  3.3. Chemical symbols and formulas  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table (Groups and Periods)  3.5. Classification of Elements: Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids  3.6. Rare Earth Elements and Transition Metals  3.7. Types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous  3.8. Separation of Mixtures Using Physical and Chemical Methods
  4. Separation Techniques  4.1. Filtration, Sedimentation and Decantation  4.2. Evaporation and crystallization  4.3. Distillation and Fractional Distillation  4.4. Chromatography and its applications  4.5. Sublimation in the purification of compounds  4.6. The role of centrifugation in biochemical processes
  5. Atomic Structure  5.1. Dalton's atomic theory  5.2. Structure of the atom: protons, neutrons and electrons  5.3. Bohr's atomic model  5.4. Introduction to Quantum Mechanical Model  5.5. Electron Configuration and Energy Levels  5.6. Excitation and emission spectra  5.7. Isotopes and their applications
  6. Periodic Table and Chemical Trends  6.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  6.2. Modern periodic law  6.3. Periodicity and trends in atomic and ionic sizes  6.4. Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity and Electronegativity  6.5. Introduction to Lanthanides and Actinides  6.6. Application of periodic trends in chemistry
  7. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  7.1. Types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent and metallic bonds  7.3. Polar and Nonpolar Molecules  7.4. Hydrogen bonding and its applications  7.5. Intermolecular forces: dipole-dipole, London dispersion force
  8. Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry  8.1. Chemical Equations and Balance  8.2. Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination, Decomposition, Displacement and Redox  8.3. Introduction to stoichiometry and the mole concept  8.4. Limiting reactant in chemical equations  8.5. Reaction rate, catalyst, and factors affecting reaction rate
  9. Acids, Bases and Salts  9.1. Definition and Properties of Acids and Bases  9.2. Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases  9.3. pH Scale and pH Calculation  9.4. Neutralization reactions  9.5. Buffer solutions and their importance  9.6. Applications of Acids, Bases and Salts in Daily Life
  10. Solutions and Solubility  10.1. Definition of Solution, Solute, and Solvent  10.2. Factors Affecting Solubility  10.3. Concentration units: molarity and molality  10.4. Saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions  10.5. Concept of osmosis and reverse osmosis  10.6. Concentrative properties of solutions
  11. Gases and Gas Laws  11.1. Properties of gases  11.2. Introduction to Ideal and Real Gases  11.3. Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law  11.4. Ideal Gas Equation and Its Applications  11.5. Application of Gas Laws in Real Life
  12. Thermochemistry and energy transformation  12.1. Energy in Chemical Reactions  12.2. Exothermic vs. Endothermic Reactions  12.3. Heat and Enthalpy Changes  12.4. Calorimetry and heat transfer in reactions
  13. Metals and Nonmetals  13.1. Physical and Chemical Properties of Metals and Nonmetals  13.2. Reactivity Series of Metals  13.3. Corrosion and its prevention  13.4. Extraction of metals from ores  13.5. Uses of metals and non-metals in daily life
  14. Introduction to Organic Chemistry  14.1. Characteristics of carbon and organic compounds  14.2. Functional groups and their importance  14.3. Simple Hydrocarbons: Alkenes, Alkenes and Alkynes  14.4. Isomerism in organic compounds  14.5. Introduction to polymers and their uses
  15. Environmental Chemistry and Sustainability  15.1. Green Chemistry Principles  15.2. Effects of Chemical Pollution on Ecosystems  15.3. Acid rain and its effects  15.4. Ozone layer depletion and global warming  15.5. Waste Management and Recycling in Chemistry

Grade 8 → Introduction to Organic Chemistry ↓


Characteristics of carbon and organic compounds


Organic chemistry is a fascinating field of science that deals primarily with molecules that contain carbon atoms. Carbon is unique and forms the basis of life as we know it. By studying organic compounds, we are able to understand the foundation of life on Earth.

Special properties of carbon

Carbon is special because it has some unique properties that allow it to form a wide variety of compounds. Let's explore these properties in detail:

1. The ability of carbon to form four bonds

Carbon has an atomic number of 6. This means it has 6 protons and usually 6 electrons. The electrons are arranged in such a way that carbon can form four covalent bonds with other atoms. This makes carbon exceptionally versatile. It can bond with other carbon atoms or with a variety of elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and others.

H   | 
H-C-H 
   | 
   H

Visual example:

H H H H C

2. Chainability: Chain forming ability

Catenation is the ability of carbon to form long chains with other carbon atoms. This occurs because carbon-carbon bonds are strong and stable, allowing the formation of complex molecules such as chains, rings and branches. This property is fundamental in forming a vast range of organic compounds.

C-C-C-C-C
  /     |     
 C     C     C

Visual example:

C C C C C C C

3. Carbon compounds have strong bonds

The bonds between carbon and other atoms are often strong and difficult to break. This characteristic contributes to the stability of organic compounds. This is one reason why organic materials such as wood, plastics and other materials are durable.

4. Formation of multiple bonds

Carbon atoms can form double or triple bonds with other carbon atoms or atoms of other elements. This increases the diversity and complexity of organic molecules.

H   | 
H-C=C-H 
   | 
   H

Visual example:

H H H C C

Organic compounds: An overview

Organic compounds are primarily composed of carbon atoms bonded to hydrogen atoms as well as other elements. They serve as the basis for understanding substances such as fuels, plastics, medicines, and even the food we eat. Let's learn about some of the basic types and properties of organic compounds.

Types of organic compounds

Organic compounds can be classified into several categories based on their structure:

1. Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds composed of only carbon and hydrogen. These can be further divided into:

a) Alkanes

Alkanes have single bonds between carbon atoms. This makes them saturated hydrocarbons. Methane (CH4), ethane (C2H6), and propane (C3H8) are common examples.

H  H |  | 
H-C-C-H 
|  | 
H  H
b) Alkene

Alkenes contain at least one carbon-carbon double bond. Ethene (C2H4) is a simple example.

H   | 
H-C=C-H 
   |
   H
c) Alkynes

Alkynes contain at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. Ethyne (C2H2) is an example. Alkynes are less common than alkenes and alkanes.

H-C≡C-H

2. Functional group

Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for specific chemical reactions of those molecules. They are a way to classify organic compounds based on the general behavior of similar atoms.

a) Alcohol

Alcohols contain -OH (hydroxyl) group. Ethanol, found in alcoholic beverages, is an example.

H   OH |   | 
H-C-C-H 
|   | 
H   H
b) Carboxylic acid

These contain a carboxyl group (-COOH) and are often found in nature. Acetic acid, which gives vinegar its sour taste, is a carboxylic acid.

O 
|| 
C-OH 
/  
H-C-C-H 
|   
H
c) Esters

Esters are usually formed by the reaction between an alcohol and a carboxylic acid. They are often used in flavors and fragrances.

O 
|| 
C-O-C  
/        
H-C     C-H 
|    || 
O

Properties of organic compounds

Understanding the properties of organic compounds helps in their application in various industries and everyday life:

1. Melting point and boiling point

Organic compounds usually have lower melting and boiling points than inorganic compounds. This is due to the weak van der Waals forces holding the molecules together. However, compounds with strong hydrogen bonds have higher boiling points.

2. Solubility

Organic compounds vary in solubility. Many are soluble in nonpolar solvents such as oils, but are insoluble in water. This principle is often summarized as "like dissolves like" - polar compounds dissolve in polar solvents, and nonpolar compounds dissolve in nonpolar solvents.

3. Flammability

Many organic compounds, especially hydrocarbons, are flammable. This is why substances such as gasoline are used as fuel. Flammability arises from the ability of molecules to release energy when they react with oxygen.

4. Isomerism

Isomerism is a phenomenon in which compounds have the same molecular formula but different structures or arrangements of atoms. For example, butane and isobutane both have the formula C4H10 but different structural arrangements.

Butane: 
H   H 
|   | 
H-C-C-C-C-H 
|   | 
H   H

Isobutane: 
    H 
    | 
 H-C-C-H 
    | 
    H

Applications of organic compounds

The study of organic compounds has led to innovations and applications in various fields. Here are some of the applications:

1. Medicine

Organic compounds form the basis of many medicines used to treat diseases and reduce pain. For example, aspirin is an organic compound that helps reduce pain, fever, and inflammation.

2. Plastic

Plastics are synthetic organic polymers used in countless everyday items. From bottles to furniture, the versatility and durability of plastics stems from their organic structure.

3. Fuel

Fossil fuels such as gasoline, diesel, and natural gas are composed primarily of hydrocarbons. They serve as the world's main energy source for transportation, heating, and electricity generation.

4. Food

Carbohydrates, proteins and fats are essential organic molecules in our diet. They provide energy, structure and support for growth and maintenance in living organisms.

Conclusion

Organic chemistry is important in understanding the building blocks of life, materials and processes around us. By understanding the characteristics and behaviours of carbon and organic compounds, we gain insight into the natural world and can use this knowledge to drive technological advancement.


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Characteristics of carbon and organic compounds

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