Grade 8
  1. Introduction to Chemistry  1.1. Nature and scope of chemistry  1.2. Importance of chemistry in daily life  1.3. Chemistry and its relation with other sciences  1.4. The role of chemistry in industry, medicine and the environment  1.5. Scientific investigation and experimental methods in chemistry
  2. Matter and its properties  2.1. Definition and classification of matter  2.2. Physical and chemical properties of matter  2.3. Law of conservation of matter  2.4. Extensive and Intensive Properties of Matter  2.5. Kinetic molecular theory of matter  2.6. States of matter: solids, liquids, gases, plasmas, and Bose-Einstein condensates  2.7. Changes in state and energy are involved  2.8. Diffusion and Brownian motion
  3. Elements, Compounds, and Mixtures  3.1. Definition and differences between elements, compounds, and mixtures  3.2. Atomic Structure and Atomic Number  3.3. Chemical symbols and formulas  3.4. Trends in the Periodic Table (Groups and Periods)  3.5. Classification of Elements: Metals, Nonmetals and Metalloids  3.6. Rare Earth Elements and Transition Metals  3.7. Types of mixtures: homogeneous and heterogeneous  3.8. Separation of Mixtures Using Physical and Chemical Methods
  4. Separation Techniques  4.1. Filtration, Sedimentation and Decantation  4.2. Evaporation and crystallization  4.3. Distillation and Fractional Distillation  4.4. Chromatography and its applications  4.5. Sublimation in the purification of compounds  4.6. The role of centrifugation in biochemical processes
  5. Atomic Structure  5.1. Dalton's atomic theory  5.2. Structure of the atom: protons, neutrons and electrons  5.3. Bohr's atomic model  5.4. Introduction to Quantum Mechanical Model  5.5. Electron Configuration and Energy Levels  5.6. Excitation and emission spectra  5.7. Isotopes and their applications
  6. Periodic Table and Chemical Trends  6.1. History and Development of the Periodic Table  6.2. Modern periodic law  6.3. Periodicity and trends in atomic and ionic sizes  6.4. Ionization Energy, Electron Affinity and Electronegativity  6.5. Introduction to Lanthanides and Actinides  6.6. Application of periodic trends in chemistry
  7. Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure  7.1. Types of chemical bonds: ionic, covalent and metallic bonds  7.3. Polar and Nonpolar Molecules  7.4. Hydrogen bonding and its applications  7.5. Intermolecular forces: dipole-dipole, London dispersion force
  8. Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry  8.1. Chemical Equations and Balance  8.2. Types of Chemical Reactions: Combination, Decomposition, Displacement and Redox  8.3. Introduction to stoichiometry and the mole concept  8.4. Limiting reactant in chemical equations  8.5. Reaction rate, catalyst, and factors affecting reaction rate
  9. Acids, Bases and Salts  9.1. Definition and Properties of Acids and Bases  9.2. Strong vs. Weak Acids and Bases  9.3. pH Scale and pH Calculation  9.4. Neutralization reactions  9.5. Buffer solutions and their importance  9.6. Applications of Acids, Bases and Salts in Daily Life
  10. Solutions and Solubility  10.1. Definition of Solution, Solute, and Solvent  10.2. Factors Affecting Solubility  10.3. Concentration units: molarity and molality  10.4. Saturated, unsaturated and supersaturated solutions  10.5. Concept of osmosis and reverse osmosis  10.6. Concentrative properties of solutions
  11. Gases and Gas Laws  11.1. Properties of gases  11.2. Introduction to Ideal and Real Gases  11.3. Boyle's Law, Charles' Law and Avogadro's Law  11.4. Ideal Gas Equation and Its Applications  11.5. Application of Gas Laws in Real Life
  12. Thermochemistry and energy transformation  12.1. Energy in Chemical Reactions  12.2. Exothermic vs. Endothermic Reactions  12.3. Heat and Enthalpy Changes  12.4. Calorimetry and heat transfer in reactions
  13. Metals and Nonmetals  13.1. Physical and Chemical Properties of Metals and Nonmetals  13.2. Reactivity Series of Metals  13.3. Corrosion and its prevention  13.4. Extraction of metals from ores  13.5. Uses of metals and non-metals in daily life
  14. Introduction to Organic Chemistry  14.1. Characteristics of carbon and organic compounds  14.2. Functional groups and their importance  14.3. Simple Hydrocarbons: Alkenes, Alkenes and Alkynes  14.4. Isomerism in organic compounds  14.5. Introduction to polymers and their uses
  15. Environmental Chemistry and Sustainability  15.1. Green Chemistry Principles  15.2. Effects of Chemical Pollution on Ecosystems  15.3. Acid rain and its effects  15.4. Ozone layer depletion and global warming  15.5. Waste Management and Recycling in Chemistry

Grade 8 ↓


Introduction to Organic Chemistry


Organic chemistry is the study of compounds that contain primarily carbon atoms. These compounds are called organic compounds. Carbon can form strong bonds with other carbon atoms and atoms of other elements such as hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and others. This makes carbon a central element in the chemistry of living things, which is why organic chemistry is often related to the study of life.

Why study organic chemistry?

Organic chemistry is important because it helps us understand the structure, properties and reactions of organic compounds. These compounds are all around us, in the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the fuel that heats our homes and even the medicines that treat our illnesses. By studying organic chemistry, we can create new materials, understand how medicines work and develop new technologies.

Here's a simple example of an organic compound: methane. Methane is a simple molecule made up of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms:

    CH 4
C H H H H

Properties of carbon

Carbon is unique because it has four valence electrons. This means that it can form four bonds with other atoms and form complex structures. Some important properties of carbon are as follows:

  • Tetravalency: Carbon can form four covalent bonds with other atoms. This allows it to form large and complex molecules.
  • Chain bonding: Carbon can bond with other carbon atoms into long chains and rings, forming a variety of structures.
  • Ability to form multiple bonds: Carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds with other atoms, leading to diversity in organic compounds.

Types of organic compounds

Organic compounds are classified based on the type of bonds, functional groups, or elements attached to carbon. Here are some common types:

1. Hydrocarbons

Hydrocarbons are the simplest organic compounds, composed only of carbon and hydrogen. Examples include:

  • Alkanes: Saturated hydrocarbons containing single bonds (e.g., C 2 H 6 ethane).
  • Alkene: Unsaturated hydrocarbon containing at least one double bond (e.g., C 2 H 4 ethene).
  • Alkynes: Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing at least one triple bond (e.g., C 2 H 2 ethyne).
H H C

2. Alcohol

Alcohols have a -OH (hydroxyl) group attached to a carbon atom. An example of this is ethanol, which is commonly used in alcoholic beverages:

    C 2 H 5 OH

3. Carboxylic acid

Carboxylic acids contain a -COOH (carboxyl) group. They usually taste sour and are found in many foods. Acetic acid is a common carboxylic acid, and it is the main component of vinegar:

    CH 3 COOH

Functional group

Functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for specific chemical reactions of those molecules. Here are some examples:

  • Hydroxyl group (-OH): Found in alcohols.
  • Carboxyl group (-COOH): Found in carboxylic acids.
  • Amino group ( -NH2 ): Found in amines and amino acids.
  • Carbonyl group (>C=O): Found in aldehydes and ketones.

Structural formula

Structural formulas show the arrangement of atoms in a molecule. Here is an example of the structural formula of ethanol:

    HH
 ,
  C—C—OH
 ,
HH
HC C Hey H

Different forms of carbon structures

Carbon can form many different structures. Some of the forms of carbon are as follows:

  • Carbon chains: Carbon atoms can form long chains. For example, hexane is a six-carbon chain:
    •         C 6 H 14
  • Carbon rings: Carbon atoms can form ring structures. Benzene is a common example of a carbon ring:
    •         C 6 H 6
C C C C C C

Learning activity: Identifying organic compounds

Below are some chemical formulas. See if you can identify whether each is an organic compound:

  • C 2 H 6 (ethane)
  • CO 2 (carbon dioxide)
  • CH 3 COOH (acetic acid)
  • H 2 O (water)
  • C 6 H 12 O 6 (glucose)

Summary

Organic chemistry is a fascinating field of science. It studies the structure, properties, and reactions of organic compounds, particularly those containing carbon. Through organic chemistry, we gain a deeper understanding of the world around us, from the molecules in our bodies to the materials we use every day. By understanding the basics of organic chemistry, you can begin to see the connections between different scientific fields and how they relate to everyday life.


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Introduction to Organic Chemistry

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