Grade 12
  1. Solid state  1.1. Classification of solids  1.2. Crystal Lattice and Unit Cell  1.3. Packing Efficiency  1.4. Density of unit cell  1.5. Imperfections in solids (point and line defects)  1.6. Electrical Properties of Solids (Conductors, Insulators and Semiconductors)  1.7. Magnetic Properties of Solids (Diamagnetic, Paramagnetic and Ferromagnetic Materials)
  2. Solution  2.1. Types of Solutions (Homogeneous and Heterogeneous)  2.2. Expressing concentration of solutions (mass %, volume %, molarity, molality, normality, mole fraction)  2.3. Solubility of solids and gases in liquids (Henry's law)  2.4. Raoult's Law and Ideal and Non-Ideal Solutions  2.5. Syndrome properties  2.6. Abnormal molar mass and Van't Hoff factor
  3. Electrochemistry  3.1. Electrochemical cells (galvanic and electrolytic cells)  3.2. Galvanic cell and EMF of the cell  3.3. Standard electrode potential and electrochemical series  3.4. Nernst equation and its applications  3.5. Conductivity and electrolytic cells (specific, molar and equivalent conductivity)  3.6. Kohlrausch's law and its applications  3.7. Batteries (primary and secondary cells)  3.8. Corrosion and its prevention
  4. Chemical kinetics  4.1. Rate of chemical reaction  4.2. Factors affecting the reaction rate (concentration, temperature, catalyst, surface area)  4.3. Order and molecularity of the reaction  4.4. Integrated Rate Equations (Zero, First and Second Order)  4.5. Half-life of a reaction  4.6. Collision theory and activation energy  4.7. Arrhenius equation and its applications
  5. Surface chemistry  5.1. Adsorption and its types (Physicosorption and Chemisorption)  5.2. Catalysis and its types (homogeneous and heterogeneous)  5.3. Colloids and their properties (Tyndall effect, Brownian motion, coagulation)  5.4. Emulsions and gels  5.5. Applications of Colloids
  6. General principles and processes of separation of elements  6.1. Presence of metals and minerals  6.2. Concentration of ores (gravity separation, froth flotation, magnetic separation)  6.3. Extraction of raw metals (roasting, calcination, reduction)  6.4. Thermodynamic and electrochemical principles of metallurgy  6.5. Refining of metals
  7. P-block elements  7.1. Group 15 elements (nitrogen and phosphorus)  7.2. Group 16 Elements (Oxygen, Sulphur and their Compounds)  7.3. Group 17 Elements (Halogens and their Compounds)  7.4. Group 18 Elements  7.5. Properties and Trends in p-Block Elements  7.6. Important compounds of p-block elements (ammonia, phosphine, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid)  7.7. Interhalogen compounds and their applications
  8. d-block and f-block elements  8.1. General Properties of Transition Metals  8.2. Properties of Inner Transition Metals (Lanthanoids and Actinoids)  8.3. Lanthanoid and actinoid contractions  8.4. Coordination Chemistry of d-Block Elements
  9. Coordination compounds  9.1. Werner's theory and modern concepts  9.2. Coordination number and type of ligand  9.3. Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds  9.4. Isomerism (geometrical and optical) in coordination compounds  9.5. Bonding in Coordination Compounds (Valence Bond Theory and Crystal Field Theory)  9.6. Stability and applications of coordination compounds in medicine and industry
  10. Haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.1. Classification and nomenclature of haloalkanes and haloarenes  10.2. Physical and Chemical Properties of Haloalkanes and Haloarenes  10.3. Mechanism of Nucleophilic Substitution Reactions (SN1 and SN2)  10.4. Uses and environmental effects (ozone depletion, CFCs)
  11. Alcohol, phenol and ether  11.1. Structure and classification of alcohols, phenols and ethers  11.2. Preparation and properties of alcohols  11.3. Preparation and properties of phenol  11.4. Preparation and properties of ethers  11.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses
  12. Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.1. Structure and nomenclature in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids  12.2. Preparation and properties of aldehydes and ketones  12.3. Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)  12.4. Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids  12.5. Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids
  13. Nitrogen-containing organic compounds  13.1. Amines (classification, structure, basicity)  13.2. Preparation and properties of amines  13.3. Reactions of Amines (Diazotization, Carbylamine Reaction)  13.4. Diazonium salts and their applications in paint industry
  14.1. Carbohydrates (classification and properties)  14.2. Proteins (Structure and Function)  14.3. Enzymes (Mechanism and Function)  14.4. Nucleic acids (DNA and RNA)  14.5. Vitamins and hormones
  15. Polymer  15.1. Classification of Polymers (Addition, Condensation, Copolymers)  15.2. Types of polymerization (free radical, ionic, condensation)  15.3. Important Polymers and Their Uses  15.4. Biodegradable and non-biodegradable polymers
  16. Chemistry in Everyday Life  16.1. Drugs and their classification (analgesics, antipyretics, antibiotics, antacids)  16.2. Chemicals in food and cosmetics (preservatives, artificial sweeteners, antioxidants)  16.3. Cleaning agents and detergents (soaps, synthetic detergents, surfactants)  16.4. Environmental Chemistry (Pollution, Green Chemistry, Sustainable Chemistry)

Grade 12 → Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids ↓


Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids


Carboxylic acids are an important group of organic compounds known for their widespread presence in nature and industrial applications. Carboxylic acids contain -COOH functional group. In this article, we will explore how to prepare carboxylic acids and examine their properties.

Preparation of carboxylic acids

1. Oxidation of alcohols and aldehydes

Carboxylic acids can be prepared by oxidizing primary alcohols or aldehydes. This reaction proceeds via the transformation of the alcohol or aldehyde into an acid.

RCH2OH → RCHO → RCOOH

Here, RCH2OH is a primary alcohol, which is oxidized to the aldehyde RCHO, and further oxidation gives the carboxylic acid RCOOH.

2. Oxidative fragmentation of alkenes

Alkenes can be converted into carboxylic acids using oxidative cleavage. The double bond in the alkene is broken, and carboxylic acids are formed.

RCH=CHR' + [O] → RCOOH + R'COOH

In this reaction, the alkene RCH=CHR' is oxidised to form two carboxylic acids RCOOH and R'COOH.

3. Hydrolysis of nitriles

Nitriles can produce carboxylic acids by hydrolysis. This reaction is carried out under acidic or alkaline conditions.

RCN + 2H2O → RCOOH + NH3

In this reaction, nitrile RCN reacts with water to form carboxylic acid RCOOH and ammonia NH3.

4. Carbonation of Grignard reagents

Grignard reagents can be used to prepare carboxylic acids by reacting with carbon dioxide.

RMgX + CO2 → RCOOMgX
RCOOMMgX + H2O → RCOOH + MgX(OH)

The Grignard reagent RMgX reacts with carbon dioxide CO2 to form carboxylate salts, which on hydrolysis give carboxylic acids RCOOH.

Properties of carboxylic acids

1. Physical properties

Carboxylic acids are generally polar compounds, as they can form hydrogen bonds with water and themselves, causing them to have higher boiling points than other organic compounds of similar molecular weight. They are often soluble in water due to the formation of hydrogen bonds.

For example, acetic acid, commonly known as carboxylic acid, is soluble in water.

2. Acidity of carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids are acidic because they can donate a proton H+ from -COOH group to form the carboxylate ion RCOO -.

RCOOH ⇌ RCOO− + H+

This equation shows the reversible dissociation of carboxylic acid into carboxylate ion and hydrogen ion. Due to the ability to donate protons, these compounds are acidic and have a sour taste.

3. Chemical reactions of carboxylic acids

3.1. Esterification

Carboxylic acids react with alcohols in the presence of an acid catalyst to form esters, a process called esterification.

RCOOH + R'OH → RCOOR' + H2O

For example, acetic acid reacts with ethanol to form ethyl acetate and water.

3.2. Deduction

Carboxylic acids can be reduced to primary alcohols using reducing agents such as lithium aluminium hydride LiAlH4.

RCOOH + 4[H] → RCH2OH + H2O

This process involves the reduction of carboxyl group to hydroxyl group.

3.3. Decarboxylation

Decarboxylation is the process in which carboxylic acids lose a carbon dioxide molecule to form alkenes.

RCOOH → RH + CO2

For example, heating sodium salts of carboxylic acids with soda lime causes decarboxylation.

Visual representation

Let us look at the structure of carboxylic acids and their reactions.

C=O Oh R

The illustration above shows the structure of a typical carboxylic acid, where R refers to any alkyl or aryl group attached to the carboxyl group -COOH.

Conclusion

Carboxylic acids are versatile compounds that are essential in a variety of chemical processes and everyday products. Methods for their preparation, ranging from the oxidation of alcohols to the hydrolysis of nitriles, provide numerous pathways to synthesize these acids. The properties of carboxylic acids, particularly their acidity and reactivity, make them important in both laboratory synthesis and industrial applications.

Understanding the formation and properties of carboxylic acids provides a strong foundation to delve deeper into organic chemistry and explore the wide range of derivatives and applications that arise from these basic compounds.


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Chemical reactions in aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids (nucleophilic addition, oxidation and reduction)
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Chemical Reactions and Uses of Carboxylic Acids

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Preparation and Properties of Carboxylic Acids

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